

FARM 
PROJECTS 



COLVIN 

and 

STEVENSON 






Class. 
Book. 



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,0u 



GopyriglitN^ 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 



FARM PROJECTS 



FARM PROJECTS 

A TEXTBOOK IN AGRICULTURE 

FOR 

SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES 

AND 

JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 

BY 

Carl Colvin, M. S. 

STATE SUPERVISOR OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
IN ILLINOIS 

AND 

John Alford Stevenson, Ph. D. 

AUTHOR OF "the PROJECT METHOD OF TEACHING" 



Nfui f nrk 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1922 



Printed in the United States 
of America 









Copyright, 19^2 
3y the MACMILLAN COMPANY 



Published June, 1922 



S. R. DON-NELLEY & SONS COMPANY 
CHICAGO 

©CU677819 



THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED TO OUR FORMER 
TEACHEP. AND COLLEAGUE 

PROFESSOR W. W. CHARTERS 



NOTE TO TEACHERS 

Many teachers, in beginning a course, consider that 
the effectiveness of the whole course depends on their 
following, chapter by chapter, the material as outlined 
in the book. The effectiveness of this course in agri- 
culture depends, rather, on the teacher's willingness 
and ability to adapt the material to the community's 
needs. There can be no better way to introduce the 
course than to spend probably a week's time on the 
"Introduction," giving the pupils all the time and 
opportunity they desire to suggest topics and plans for 
further study. 

It is essential that the pupils start the work with the 
point of view that what they do in school is an exten- 
sion of their home activities and that by applying 
themselves to work in school they will make their home 
tasks easier and more productive. Make them see the 
dollars and cents value of their work. 

The course in agriculture may be begun at a time of 
year when the projects suggested in the first part of 
this book are not feasible. In that case, make the book 
fit the season. 

A criticism often aimed at the project method is that 
after the pupils have carried the project to completion, 
no time is devoted to drill on principles and information 



viii NOTE TO TEACHERS 

introduced during the process of solving the problem. 
Make sure, therefore, that the principles involved in 
this course in agriculture are illustrated and drilled 
upon. After the pupils have finished their course they 
should not only be trained in farm activities but they 
should have a knowledge of the general principles 
underlying these activities. 

Anticipate your projects. It may be that a certain 
project should be started four or five weeks before the 
problem is taken up as one of the main divisions of the 
course. Best results will be obtained if after you have 
studied the projects suggested, ascertained the local 
agricultural problems, and considered the time of year in 
which the work is to be started, you will make a chart 
of the projects to be undertaken. You may be able to 
plan new and interesting projects to be worked out in 
connection with the course as outlined in the text. 

There can be no question that the interest and en- 
thusiasm of the pupils will be aroused if the school work 
in agriculture is shown to be directly concerned with the 
problems arising on their home farms. 

J. A. S. 



CONTENTS 



FIRST YEAR 



StCTION 




I. 


Introduction 


XL 


The Community Map . 


III. 


Plants .... 


IV. 


Plant Propagation 


V. 


Planting the School Yard 


VI. 


Selecting Seed Corn. 


VII. 


The Wheat Crop 


VIII. 


Weeds .... 


IX. 


Crop Rotation . 


X. 


Soil Fertility . 


XI. 


The Use of Limestone on Soils 


XII. 


Corn Judging . 


XIII. 


Testing Seed Corn . 


XIV. 


Plant Diseases . 


XV. 


Pruning .... 


XVI. 


The Hotbed 


XVII. 


Transplanting Plants 


XVIII. 


The Home Vegetable Garden 


XIX. 


The Flower 


XX. 


Trees .... 


XXI. 


Legumes .... 


XXII. 


Alfalfa .... 


XXIII. 


Growing Cotton 




SECOND YEAR 


I. 


Better Egg Production 


II. 


Breeds of Poultry 



PAGE 
I 

4 
9 

19 
26 

36 
43 
54 
59 
64 
72 

79 

87 
95 

lOI 

"5 

120 

125 
136 
141 
148 

154 
161 



167 
179 



X 


CONTENTS 




SECTION 




PAGE 


III. 


The Babcock Test .... 


i86 


IV. 


The Silo ...... 


194 


V. 


Milk and Its Care .... 


202 


VI. 


Feeding Animals .... 


211 


VII. 


How To Tell the Age of Animals 


222 


VIII. 


The Horse .... 


229 


IX. 


Beef Cattle ..... 


238 


X. 


The Breeds of Dairy Cows 


247 


XI. 


Swine ...... 


257 


XII. 


Sheep ...... 


263 


XIII. 


Raising a Pet Lamb .... 


273 


XIV. 


Raising a Litter of Pigs . 


280 


XV. 


Some Groups of Insects 


288 


XVI. 


The Control of Insects 


295 


XVII. 


Insects of the Garden 


305 


XVIII. 


The Honeybee ..... 


312 


XIX. 


Machines ...... 


320 


XX. 


A Study of the Gas Engine 


329 


XXI. 


The Automobile .... 


340 


Appendix 


...... 


353 



FARM PROJECTS 

I 

INTRODUCTION 

Have you ever won a blue ribbon for a fine hog at 
your County or State Fair? Have you ever taken first 
prize for the best ears of corn at your corn show? If 
you read the newspapers, you have read about a num- 
ber of boys who have brought home many prizes for 
their exhibits at the State and County Fairs. What is 
more to the point, there is no reason why your exhibits 
shouldn't be just as fine as theirs, if you will enter into 
the spirit of the work as it is suggested in the following 
pages. 

In starting this work, you are starting something just 
a little different from anything you have ever under- 
taken in school before. If you have helped your father 
on the farm, you know of the many things he must know 
and plan to do. It may seem strange to you, at first, 
to find that these are the very things which are to be 
taught in this course and that you will be able to help 
him by actually doing some of his work while you 
are at school. You also know of a number of things 
which you yourself like to do about the farm. Aren't 



2 FARM PROJECTS 

you surprised to find that these are the very things 
which are to be studied about in this book? 

When you go home to-night, sit down with your father 
and mother and ask them to tell you about their plans 
for managing your farm. Is the major crop to be corn 
or wheat? Does your father expect to devote most of 
his energies to the raising of high-grade stock? Does 
he expect to test his seed corn? Does your mother 
find the raising of a few chickens profitable ? Are there 
any improvements to be made or is there any new 
machinery which is to be bought? 

What you learn in studying each topic will be of 
immediate help to your father and may help him to 
save a large amount of money. You will read about a 
boy who started a friendly contest with his father in 
raising pigs. By the time the litters were four weeks 
old, the boy's pigs, which had been fed according to the 
method which he learned in school, were much finer 
than his father's. The father was so much pleased 
with his son's success that he gave him one litter of pigs 
and started a bank account for him for the purpose of 
paying his expenses through high school and, later, 
through the agricultural college. 

If you will explain to your father what you are 
doing, he may be induced to give you a pig or a few 
chickens or may let you have some land on which 
to raise some kind of crop. By a little thoughtful 
planning, you can raise large quantities of vegetables 
in a comparatively small space. When you try exper- 



INTRODUCTION 3 

iments at home, it will be interesting for you to 
compare results with boys who are using the same 
methods that you are and with those who are using 
different methods. 

In your school you may not take up the work in the 
order suggested here, since you may have other prob- 
lems to consider, but after you have read over the list 
of topics you can talk the matter over among yourselves 
and decide on the order which will be of most help to 
you in your work. Perhaps you can make a report to 
your teacher on the topics you would like to study first. 

It may be that you will find some difliicult problems 
to work out at the very beginning. We usually find it 
easier, however, to do things which are considered hard, 
when we have a real reason for doing them, than to do 
"easy" things when we see no reason for doing them. 

You will see clearly why we must plan for a con- 
siderable amount of home work. What we learn in 
school, however, would not have much value unless we 
could use it at home, would it.? 

Anything of interest about the farm may be part of 
this course in agriculture. Not all the subjects on 
which a first-class farmer should have some knowledge 
can be discussed at length in school, but most of them 
will be given some consideration. 

It will probably be wise to begin your work by making 
a community map like that suggested in the following 
chapter, in order that you may know the "lay-out" of 
the farms in the community in which you live. 



II 

THE COMMUNITY MAP 

Class Exercise 

All boys and girls who are studying about farms and 
farm life should know something about the farms of 
the community in which they live. It would be a 
waste of time to spend several years at school studying 
agriculture if, at the end of that time, we knew nothing 
about the farms in our own section of the country. In 
studying the various topics included in this book, then, 
we must be sure to know how the information we gain 
applies to our own community. If we are studying 
wheat, we must know what kinds of wheat are grown 
on the farms around us and the methods employed by 
the farmers who raise the largest crops. If we are 
studying trees, we should know what trees grow in 
our own orchards and wood lots and how these are 
cared for. 

Of course, most boys and girls have some knowledge 
of what kinds of live stock and what crops are raised 
in their community. But if we make a systematic 
study of this community, we s4iall discover many 
interesting and valuable facts which are not generally 
known. We must try to observe something new each 

4 



.THE COMMUNITY MAP 5 

day; for our experiences will be a valuable part of the 
lessons taught in school. 

When we study about a new country in geography 
we usually find a map of that country at the beginning 
of the lesson. Maps record many items which would 
be difficult to explain clearly in a written account. 
Ideas of proportion in size, quantity, and distance, can 
be better illustrated by a map. As we have no map 
which contains the information about our community 
that we want, we shall have to make our own map. 

Obtain from the stationer's or the print shop several 
sheets of heavy paper, thirty inches by thirty-six inches, 
suitable for map making. Decide upon a convenient 
scale for the map, one inch to twenty-five rods being 
a convenient scale for such maps. A preliminary 
sketch may be made upon the blackboard. Include in 
the map all areas that are represented in the school 
community or district. If the area to be included is too 
large to be shown clearly on one map, sectional maps 
may be made and fitted together. Divide the area 
into four equal parts and draw the maps on four sheets 
of paper so they may be fitted together and made to 
match. When the boundary lines of the whole area 
have been carefully drawn, the following items should 
be indicated in the order named: 

1. Roads. All crossroads and main highways should be indi- 
cated by red lines on the map. 

2. Bou7idary lines of the farms. Accurate data should be 
obtained by members of the class showing the size of each farm. 



6 FARM PROJECTS 

The value of this map as it is used through the year will depend 
largely upon the accuracy and neatness exercised in placing the 
boundary lines. 



Fig. I. Outline map of one quarter of a school district showing 

FARMS AND FENCES 



3. Streams. Locate the source of each stream and drainage 
ditch cutting through the farms, using blue lines. 

4. Forest areas. Shade in black all areas that are forest lands 
and non-tillable. 

5. Fields. The farms should be divided into fields as they are 
fenced off, or divided by the farmers. Each member of the class 



THE COMMUNITY MAP 7 

should bring a map of his father's farm, showing the division 
fences. The data from farms not represented in class may be 
obtained by members of the class who live near by. 

6. Farm buildings. The farm houses, barns, and other build- 
ings may be located on the map after the division lines are placed 
in each farm. 

7, Public property. Locate the school grounds and school 
houses, and other public property. 

The illustration, Fig. i, shows an outline map which 
follows the above suggestions. It represents one quar- 
ter of a rural school community. 

Each member of the class should draw a map in his 
notebook exactly like the large map, except in size. 
One inch to one hundred sixty rods is a convenient 
scale. 

If there is a hectograph or mimeograph in the school, 
several copies of the smaller maps should be made for 
the use of the class in representing crop areas and other 
interesting data. Parents will be glad to see these 
maps. The small maps may be shaded in various ways 
to show the clover fields, the wheat fields, the cotton 
fields, and the portion of any section devoted to a 
certain crop. 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. How many acres are there in a section.? 

2. How many rods square is a quarter section.? 

3. How long is an eighty- acre field which is forty rods wide.? 

4. If a field is ten rods wide, twenty rods long on one side, and 
twenty-six rods on the other, how many acres are there in it? 



8 FARM PROJECTS 

5. How many farms are there in the school community ? What 
is the average size of the farms? How many acres are there in 
the smallest farm? In the largest farm? 

6. How many miles of fence are there in the school community ? 
Estimate the amount of money invested in fence. 

7. How wide are the roads in the community? What per cent 
of the land is used for public roads? 

8. What per cent of the total acreage is devoted to corn? To 
wheat? To orchards? To pasture? Is this distribution eco- 
nomical? Does this distribution bring the best returns? 

9. How many acres of land on your farm are not tillable? What 
is the reason? How much is taken up by the barnyard and other 
yards, including space for buildings? 



Ill 

. PLANTS 

Home Work 

In order to see clearly the relation of the different 
parts of a plant to each other we shall study the plant 
as a whole. The potato is a good example to use if it is 
growing at the time this project is studied, but if not, 
some other plant which is growing in the garden may 
serve. 

The entire plant should be taken from the soil and 
the soil washed from around its roots. Measure each 
stem and each root in order to find out the total length 
of the stems and of the roots. Compare the length of 
the roots with that of the stems. Count the number 
of leaves on the plant. Are there any other structures 
which are not true roots, stems, or leaves .? If so, where 
are they located .? Make a drawing of the plant show- 
ing all the parts. Notice the root hairs near the tip of 
the root. Compare the fleshy part of the sweet potato 
with the fleshy part of the Irish potato. Does the 
sweet potato have eyes similar to the Irish potato? 
Are the sweet potatoes cut into parts when planted.? 
Write the history of a potato plant from the time it 
is planted until it is taken out of the ground for use 

9 



lo FARM PROJECTS 

as food. Answer the following questions from your 
observations: 

1. How many leaves are there on an ordinary Irish potato 
plant? Estimate the total number of square inches of leaf sur- 
face. 

2. What happens if a part of the root system of a plant is des- 
troyed by cutting off the roots with a spade? 

3. Which yielded the larger income last year on your farm, the 
animals and animal products or the plants and their products? 

4. Make a list of all the plants you can find on the way to 
school.* 

5. What wild plants in your locality are of some value as food 
for people or can be used to feed animals? 

Facts to Be Studied 

Extent of Plant Growth. — Almost everywhere on the 
face of the earth we find plants growing. Plants are 
living things just as animals are, and are able to adapt 
themselves to varying conditions. Even the most 
rocky portions of the earth are covered with kinds of 
small plants, such as mosses, lichens, and small shrubs. 
Tiny plants may be found growing up through the 
snow on the mountains, bearing flowers though the 
snow covers the ground most of the year. Even on 
the deserts plants may be found which are adapted 
to the hot dry climate there. Some classes of plants 
are so small that they cannot be seen without the 
aid of a high power microscope. The bacteria illus- 
trate this class. These plants are sometimes, though 

* This may be made a class contest. 



PLANTS II 

incorrectly, called germs; they cause disease when they 
get into the blood, cause decay, cause milk to sour, 
and produce many other results which are apparent in 
everyday life. Some small plants such as water lilies 
grow in water. The scum which is sometimes found 
on the surface of ponds is really made up of growing 
plants. 

Uses of Plants. — We are more interested, however, 
in the group of plants called seed plants, because this 
group has a greater economic value. The botanist calls 
this group spermatophytes, the word meaning seed- 
bearing plants. 

Plants furnish the basis for all animal life and if it 
were not for plants, animals could not live. Plants 
furnish food, shelter, and clothing for man. The food 
plants are so numerous and so widely distributed that 
we need not list them here. Our houses are built of 
the wood from trees. Thus we obtain shelter for our- 
selves and for animals. The cotton plant is a worthy 
rival of the wool-producing sheep in the business of 
producing material for our clothing and house furnish- 
ings. 

Plants are also used very extensively for medicinal 
purposes. The Indians early recognized this value of 
herbs. We have developed the industry until we are 
able to extract quantities of drugs and chemicals from 
plants. 

The Plant as a Factory. — As our existence from year 
to year depends upon the growth of plants, we should 



12 FARM PROJECTS 

give some attention to the growth of useful or economic 
plants, our purpose being to learn how to grow better 
plants. We may best begin by studying a single plant 
to learn how it grows. Every plant may be consid- 
ered as a factory which takes raw material from the 
soil and from the air and works it over into finished 
products. The apple tree, through its roots, takes the 
mineral matter and water from the soil, and through 
its leaves takes carbon dioxide from the air. These 
materials are changed and worked over in the cells of 
the leaves and stems, and a part of the material thus 
worked over goes to make up the apple, which we use 
as food. 

We should remember that the apple tree does not 
manufacture apples for us to eat, but produces apples 
because that is the method of forming and preserving 
the seed that is to produce another apple tree. If 
allowed to grow undisturbed by man, the apple tree 
would not produce such delicious fruit because fine 
fruit is not necessary for the purpose of reproducing a 
tree. When we eat the potato, the apple, or the grain 
of wheat or corn we are eating that which nature 
intended to produce new plants. 

Parts of the Plant. — This plant factory is so made 
that no man has ever been able to imitate it. We find 
that a plant is divided into such main parts as the roots, 
stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits, all parts being put 
together in such a way that they work in perfect har- 
mony for the single purpose of producing another 



PLANTS 13 

generation of plants. The individual plant uses great 
quantities of water, just as the steam engine uses large 
quantities of water. 

The function of the roots of plants is : 

1. To hold the plant in its place in the soil. 

2. To furnish a channel through which the sap is transferred 
from the roots to the leaves. 

3. To furnish a storehouse for the finished product. 

4. To act as a workroom of the factory. 

The function of the stem is: 

1. To hold the leaves up to the light. 

2. To furnish a channel through which the sap is transferred 
from the roots to the leaves. 

3. To furnish a storehouse for the finished product. 

4. To act as a workroom in some cases for the factory. 

The function of the leaves on the plant is : 

1. To manufacture starch or food. 

2. To provide an exit for water and an entrance for carbon 
dioxide. (Water is given off and carbon dioxide breathed in 
through the leaves.) 

The leaf also acts as a storehouse for food in some 
plants. In each leaf of the plant there is a greenish 
substance called chlorophyll which helps to supply food 
to the plant by turning the carbon dioxide into food 
which the plant needs. 

The function of the flower of the plant is to make 
preparation for the production of the fruit; that is to 
say, the flower is the undeveloped fruit of the plant and 
the purpose of the fruit is the reproduction of the plant. 



H 



FARM PROJECTS 



If we study the root structure we shall find that the 
root is covered near its tip with very fine hairs. These 
root hairs, as they are called, are really only extensions 
on the outside wall of the cells of the 
plant. 

The sap in the plant is thicker than 
the moisture in the soil and this mois- 
ture flows into the plant, and is taken 
up through the channels of the root 
and stem. As soon as the water has en- 
tered the root it finds its way through 
the channels of the root and through 
the stem to the leaf. If a cross section 
of a piece of stem be examined, these 
channels in the coarse structure of the 
wood may be easily 
noted. 

How the Starch Is 
Made. — In the stem are tube-like 
cells through which the water passes 
to and from the leaf. The water 
which thus enters the plant, carries 
with it a mineral food in solution 
from the soil and it is in this way 
that the food reaches the various 
parts of the plant where it is worked over into the plant 
tissue. Starch is composed of three elements, viz., 
hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon, two of which (hydrogen 
and oxygen) make up what is commonly known as 




Fig. 2. ROOTTIPAND 
ROOT HAIRS 




Fig. 3. Cross section of 

YOUNG root showing 
CELL arrangement 



PLANTS 15 

water. Two of them, carbon and oxygen, make up 
carbon dioxide. The leaves breathe in the carbon diox- 
ide and obtain water from the soil and, in the various 
channels composing the body of the leaf, these two sub- 
stances are worked over into a single substance called 
starch. 

Power of the Factory. — If we were to analyze this 
starch in the chemical laboratory we should find that 
it contained carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The oxy- 
gen which is not used by the plant is given off into the 
air, and all day long this little factory keeps working 
away making starch from these two raw materials, water 
and carbon dioxide. It is truly a factory, but from what 
source does it derive its power.? What and where is 
the little engine that makes the factory go.? The sun 
is the engine, giving the plant all its energy by means of 
the sunlight. The plant ceases to make starch in the 
dark. Most plants do the manufacturing during the 
daytime and then store the food away at night. The 
starch is transferred to some other part of the plant, 
for instance to the roots to be stored, or it may be taken 
to some part to be further worked over into other kinds 
of food. 

For the purpose of building up plant tissues and pro- 
ducing fruit, plants require ten elements, which they 
get from the soil, air, and water. These elements are 
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, potassium, 
nitrogen, sulphur, calcium, iron, and magnesium. An 
easy w^ay to remember these elements which the plant 



i6 



FARM PROJECTS 



requires to make its growth is to memorize the following 
expression: C. Hopkins CaFe, Mg. The first letters 
of each of the elements are used in the expression; thus, 
C — Carbon; H — Hydrogen; O — Oxygen; P — Phos- 
phorus; K — Kalium, the 
Latin word for potas- 
sium; N — Nitrogen; S — 
Sulphur; Ca — Calcium; 
Fe — Ferrum, the Latin 
word for iron; and Mg — 
Magnesium. If one of 
these elements is lacking 
in the soil, the plant is 
sure to die and if one is 
present only in a small 
amount, the plant's 
growth will be retarded. 
If a barrel is made of long 
and short staves it will hold water only to the top of 
the shortest stave. Just so, the plant can grow only 
until the most limited element in the soil is all used; 
then it must cease growing no matter how large a 
quantity of the other elements is in the soil. 

The Potato as an Illustration of Plants. — To illus- 
trate the different parts of this factory we have been 
talking about we may study the potato plant. The 
roots of the plant extend several inches in all directions 
from the center of growth, and it is through these roots 
that the mineral food and water enter the plant The 




Fig. 4. The amount of water which 
the barrel will hold is limited by 
the length of b. 



PLANTS 17 

green stem of the plant, in this case extending above 
the ground, not only supports the leaves but also fur- 
nishes a channel for transporting the sap from the roots 
to the leaves. It is in the leaves that the starch is 
made. The starch being made in the leaves, is trans- 
ferred into the little storehouses through the channels 
of the stem. These storehouses are called tubers. It 
may seem that these tubers are the roots of the plant, 
but this is not the case, as they are attached to the little 
stemlike structures which are beneath the soil. They 
are the storehouses of the plant in which the finished 
product is stored. The flower of the potato appears 
above ground and grows on the stem much the same as 
the flower on the apple tree grows. In some instances 
the seed develops just as it develops in the apple and 
this results in a structure which is called the fruit of the 
potato. While it is true that the potato is grown from 
the tuber which has a number of eyes, or buds, which 
are to produce other plants, it is also true that new 
plants may be obtained from seed. Every new variety 
of potato must be started by seed. 

The Irish potato plant illustrates the structure of 
most of the plants we have mentioned so far. The 
sweet potato stores its food in a different way, storing 
the starchy food in its roots which become fleshy at one 
point rather than in the stems. An example of a plant 
which stores its food in the stem above the ground is 
the kohlrabi which produces an enlargement of the 
stem just above the ground. A plant which stores its 



i8 FARM PROJECTS 

food in the main stem is the beet or radish, while the 
cabbage stores its food in the leaves, which taken to- 
gether are called a head. We use these parts of the 
plant which we have called storehouses for food when 
we eat the tubers of the Irish potato, the fleshy roots 
of the sweet potato, and the heads of the cabbage. 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. Haw is plant growth related to the richness or fertility of 
the soil? 

2. Name all the uses of plants which you can illustrate. 

3. In what ways is the plant like a factory? 

4. Why does the corn plant produce seed? 

5. Name the main parts of a plant and give the purpose of each 
part. 

6. How is moisture taken into the plants? 

7. Where is starch made? How? 

8. What is the source of power for the manufacture of food in 
the plant? 

9. Name the elements required for plant growth. Define the 
word element. (Consult the dictionary for the meaning of the 
word element.) 

10. What is meant by a plant's storehouse? 

11. Give examples of plants which store food in the leaves; in 
roots; stems; underground stems. 



IV 
PLANT PROPAGATION 



Home Work 

Place some bean seed between pieces of blotting 
paper on a plate. Keep in a warm place and apply 
plenty of moisture to keep the blotter from becoming 
dry. The moisture will not evaporate rapidly if two 
dinner plates are used, one turned over the other. 

Place some seeds on another plate and keep them 
covered with water. Note what happens. 

Place another plate, containing the seed between the 
blotters, in the ice box or in some other cold place. 
What happens.? What 
seems to be necessary for 
good germination or first 
growth .? 

Test clover seed for 
vitality by placing one 
hundred seeds between 
blotting paper on a plate, 
keeping the paper moist for a few days. Count the num- 
ber of seeds which germinate. What per cent germinate.? 

Make cuttings of some plants at home and start them 
in pots of sandy soil. Choose the plants which are 

19 




Fig. 5. Seed may be germinated be- 
tween PLATES 



20 



FARM PROJECTS 





Fig. 6, Beans germinating 



most convenient; that is, plants growing around your 
home. Geranium plants make good cuttings which 
grow readily when placed in fine soil. The cuttings may 
be made by cutting off about three inches of the stem or 

branch and pinching off the 
leaves. The cuttings may be 
started in sand or in a glass 
of water, in which case they 
should be transplanted as 
soon as the roots appear. 

Facts to be Studied 

How Plants Are Started. — 
Crop production depends 
upon the care of plants, a 
part of this care being the propagation of plants or 
starting of plants from time to time. Each season the 
farmer must plant new crops which means that he must 
aid the plants in getting a start. The most common 
method of starting plants for a new crop is that of 
planting seeds. Some plants begin their new growth 
by means of spores which are microscopic structures 
corresponding to the seeds of larger plants. A third 
method of propagation is that of making cuttings, or 
using a part of the plant itself other than the seed or 
spore to start a new growth. 

Seed. — The seed of plants is so commonly known that 
little need be said about it. The seed is really a small 
living plant imbedded in enough food to keep it grow- 



PLANT PROPAGATION 21 

ing until It can manufacture its own. Most economic 
crops are started by means of seed. Each kind of seed 
differs from every other kind, though seeds of different 
plants sometimes resemble each other so closely that 
it is difficult to distinguish them. The most important 
problems before the farmer at planting time are to make 
sure that the seed which he is about to plant is pure 
and that it will grow. A method of testing seed is out- 
lined in the chapter on "Testing Seed Corn." 

Factors Necessary for Germination or Growth. — In 
order that plants may be grown from seed, certain fac- 
tors are essential: 

1. The seed must be vital; that is, it must be alive 
and ready to start growth when the conditions are right. 

2. Plenty of moisture must be present. Seeds will 
not germinate without plenty of moisture. If seeds 
would start growth without moisture, they would grow 
through the winter while in storage. If the soil is rolled 
after planting, the moisture rises in the soil more 
rapidly and the seed is more likely to get enough mois- 
ture to start growth than if it is sowed in a rough seed 
bed. 

3. Air is necessary for the first growth of the plants. 
If seeds are kept under water, they will not germinate, 
because the water excludes the air. Frequently stands 
of corn and other crops are poor because the soil has 
been wet when the seed was planted. 

4. Warmth is needed to start the processes of growth. 
However, some seed germinates at a rather low tempera- 



22 FARM PROJECTS 

ture. Lettuce and radishes may be planted in the 
garden very early in the spring and they will germinate 
and make a good growth despite the cool temperature. 
On the other hand, corn, beans, and cucumbers require 
a higher temperature for good germination. It is 
apparent that the farmer has many problems to face 
in starting a crop from seed. 

Storage of Seed. — The seed must be stored under good 
conditions, or the tiny embryo or baby plant will be 
injured, or, in many cases, killed by weather conditions. 
Seed is usually planted the next year after it is pro- 
duced, although many kinds of seeds live much longer. 
Some weed seeds have germinated after twenty-five 
years, while peas and soy-beans do not germinate well 
after two years. 

Buds. — There are many kinds of buds and many 
methods of starting plants by bud growth. Some 
specialized forms of buds are the bulbs and corms. Ex- 
amples of bulbs are the tulip, onion, and many lilies. 
The bulbs are really shortened stems containing buds 
which begin growth, forming a new plant as soon as 
conditions are right for the growth of the bud. The 
bulbs are made up of leaves or scales lying close to- 
gether while the corms are solid throughout. The cro- 
cus, one of the earliest flowers to bloom in the spring, is 
propagated from corms. 

The tuber is another specialized part which produces 
a new plant from its buds or eyes, the Irish potato 
being an example. Tubers are underground stems 



PLANT PROPAGATION 23 

thickened or fleshy, sometimes thought to be parts of 
the root system. 

Other plants reproduce by means of rootstocks^ or 
thickened underground stems producing roots; runners, 
or traihng stems producing new plants from the nodes; 
or suckers, which are plants produced by stems covered 
with earth. Timothy reproduces by means of root- 
stocks, strawberries by runners, and raspberries by 
suckers. Some plants such as the grape are propagated 
by layering. The stems are brought to the ground and 
covered with soil so as to start new growth from the 
nodes of the stems. Black raspberries naturally bend 
to the ground and the tips of the stems take root in the 
soil, forming new plants. 

Cuttings. — Sometimes the farmer cannot depend upon 
nature to propagate the plants which grow from buds, 
so he helps her in the work of propagation by making 
cuttings of stems, roots, or leaves. Every farm boy 
is familiar with the method of cutting the Irish potato, 
it being necessary to have an eye in each piece before a 
new plant can be formed. New plants would be formed 
if the whole potato was planted, but many more plants 
may be obtained by making cuttings. The geranium 
is a good illustration of a plant that is propagated by 
stem cuttings, it being possible to start large numbers 
of plants from a single branch of geranium plant. Usu- 
ally the parts of the stem with growing tips are selected, 
and cuttings are made from two to six inches in length. 
When the base of the cutting is buried in warm, moist 



24 FARM PROJECTS 

soil, growth soon begins and roots are sent out from 
the stem. 

Sometimes leaf cuttings are made from such thick- 
leafed plants as the begonia. The leaves contain much 
food and will soon start a growth of roots if they are 
cut at points along the rib, laid on wet sand, and kept 
warm and moist for a few days. Root cuttings are 
made like the stem cuttings. Most plants can be 
started by making root cuttings if the same conditions 
for growth are present that were mentioned as require- 
ments for seed germination. 

When to Make Cuttings. — The hardwood cuttings, 
such as the grape, require long periods of time to start 
new growth and should be made in the fall and stored 
in moist sand through the winter. When they are 
placed in the soil in the spring, they will make an early 
growth. Tuber cuttings are made at planting time, as 
there is no advantage in making them earlier. Soft 
wood cuttings such as the geranium may be made 
in the fall and started in pots in the greenhouse, or 
the plants may be stored over winter and the cuttings 
made in the spring. 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. List all the plants grown in your community which are prop- 
agated by seeds; by spores; by vegetable parts or buds. 

2. If in lOO seeds, 95 alfalfa seeds and 5 weed seeds are found, 
and by testing it is found that 85% of the alfalfa seeds grew, what 
percentage of the entire sample is good alfalfa? 



PLANT PROPAGATION 25 

3. Give reasons for testing seed before planting. 

4. Ask your father about the pure seed law in your state. What 
requirements does the law make? 

5. Describe the different kinds of cuttings that may be made. 

6. What advantage, if any, would be gained by planting whole 
potatoes instead of pieces.? 

7. Make a list of all the plants grown on your farm which are 
grown from seed but which do not produce seed in your climate. 
Where is such seed secured .? 



V 
PLANTING THE SCHOOL YARD 

School Exercise 

Making a Map of the School Grounds. — This exer- 
cise can be carried out satisfactorily if all the members 
of the class will cooperate. You should work together 
in drawing a map of the school grounds, using some 
convenient scale, a satisfactory scale for most school 
grounds being one inch to ten feet. Indicate on the 
map all trees and shrubs that are already on the 
grounds. Mark off the ball diamond and other places 
used for sports and indicate all playground apparatus. 
Draw in the walks, outline the borders about the 
school house and the corners of the yard as you think 
they should be planted, and make a list of the number 
of trees and shrubs which will be required. See the 
illustration on the following page for suggestions. 

Planting Date. — Planting may be done in the spring 
or fall but there are some advantages in planting the 
school yard in the fall, as you can learn how to care for 
the plants during the fall and winter and again in the 
spring when they begin to make their growth. You 
can interest many of the friends of the school in the 
work which you are doing if you make the planting 

26 



PLANTING THE SCHOOL YARD 



27 




PEVELOPMENT PLAN f- 

A RURAL SCHOOL GROUNP 



7„.^^ « M-M-. L A 



Fig. 7. Plan showing method of grouping shrubs 
and trees 



28 FARM PROJECTS 

day a ''patrons' day" and arrange an appropriate pro- 
gram to be carried out during a part of the day. 

Obtaining the Shrubs. — Many shrubs may be ob- 
tained from the home yards in the community. Such 
shrubs as hlac may be found growing in great masses; 
frequently one clump will furnish enough small shrubs 
for a school yard, the original clump being better for 
having been thinned. Spirea, more commonly known 
as bridal wreath, and honeysuckle are to be found in 
many yards; both shrubs are very desirable for the 
school yard. What shrubs are commonly found in your 
locality ? What shrubs can you furnish from your own 
yard or from a near-by woods.? Shrubs and trees can 
be purchased at reasonable prices from nurseries. The 
members of the class should write for catalogues. 

Planting. — In general, you should follow the direc- 
tions given on page 142 for planting a tree. The plants 
which are to be transplanted from the home yards 
should be taken up the same day they are transplanted, 
and the roots should not be exposed to the sun as they 
will dry out and fail to grow. If it is necessary to take 
up the plants before the planting date or if nursery 
stock is to be used, the plants should be "heeled in" 
until time for planting. To heel in the plants, dig a 
trench or a hole in the ground and place the roots in it, 
covering them with soil which must be kept moist. 

You must not attempt to do more than you can do 
well. Each pupil should be responsible for one kind of 
shrub or tree. If six lilacs are needed, one or two boys 



PLANTING THE SCHOOL YARD 29 

should be responsible for them and bring them to 
school and set them in their proper places. If you can 
enlist the interest and help of your older brothers and 
your father, ask them to come with you to the school 
yard on the day set for the planting. 

Pruning. — Do not be afraid to prune the shrubs 
severely, as the root system has been cut down a great 
deal when the plant was taken from the ground and is 
not able to supply a large top with the required mois- 
ture. Shrubs can usually be cut back to a height of 
about two feet. Can you explain why plants wilt when 
they are taken out of the ground .? 

Watering. — Plenty of water should be used around 
the roots of the plants when they are set in the ground, 
but it should not be necessary to water very often after 
that time. If the ground becomes very dry it should 
be thoroughly soaked with water as it does the plant 
little good to sprinkle the ground. Why.? 

Mulching. — A mulch or covering of leaves, straw, or 
manure should be placed about the shrubs and trees 
after the freezing weather sets in. Can you explain 
why the mulch should be used and why it should be 
put on after the ground is frozen.? 

Completing the Map. — The original plan may need 
revising after the yard is planted. Each shrub and 
tree should be located on the map and named with its 
common name. Make a list of all the plants and write 
a description of each, telling about its habits of growth, 
kind of flowers, height, time of blossoming, etc. 



30 FARM PROJECTS 

Facts to be Studied 

The Landscape. — Trees and shrubs and flowers 
should make an appeal to every person. How much 
more beautiful is the yard that is broken by a maple 
here, an oak there, and a birch or two, than the bare 
grounds which glare in the sun's light! We all prefer 
a walk in the woods to a walk along a dusty, barren 
road or field; yet most of our school yards are barren 
and unattractive. If there is any place that should be 
made inviting it is the school yard where we spend so 
much of our time while we are children. 

Poets have always sung the praises of the trees and 
flowers. Painters have made these works of nature the 
models for a large number of their works of art. Why 
should we not live among the trees and flowers.? No 
greater monument can be erected to a schoolboy's 
memory than a giant oak or elm which he planted as a 
boy, or a clump of lilacs giving a portion of their beauty 
and fragrance to every passer-by. 

Arrangement of Plantings. — When one goes into the 
open fields or woods, he finds winding paths, irregular 
borders, and trees and shrubs growing in groups or 
clumps without any definite arrangement other than 
that made by nature as the seeds were scattered by the 
wind. Even the streams wind their way among the 
trees and hills, and no straight line or orderly arrange- 
ment is to be found anywhere. When this general 
style of planting is carried out in our yards it is called 



PLANTING THE SCHOOL YARD 31 

the natural style. It is a mistake to plant trees and 
shrubs in straight rows like soldiers or sentinels on the 
school grounds when all around nature has chosen a 
freer and easier method of grouping the plants. The 
borders should be planted in curved lines as shown in 
the illustration and walks should ordinarily be curved 
to fit into the general scheme of planting although it 
sometimes happens that it is necessary for convenience 
to build straight walks in public places. Trees should 
be placed with regard to their use as shade trees and 
where their beauty will serve as a background for 
other plants. 

The Open Lawn. — Shrubs should not be planted at 
random on a lawn, but should be planted about the 
border so as to form a framework for the yard. The 
broad open lawn is very desirable especially in school 
yards where plenty of room is necessary for play. Long 
unobstructed views are characteristic of the open coun- 
try and care should be taken not to break the view 
from inside or outside the yard. 

Grouping. — The illustration (Fig. 7) shows the shrubs 
grouped about the borders in a natural way. It is not 
enough just to plant a number of shrubs together in 
one group, but the taller ones should be planted in the 
rear and the smaller ones arranged in front and planted 
close enough together to make a solid mass of foliage 
when the shrubs are mature. A variety of size and 
color is desirable in all groups. The snowberry shrub 
has white berries which remain through the winter 



32 



FARM PROJECTS 



while the barberry bears red berries which also remain 
through the cold weather. If a clump of snowberries 
is planted near a clump of barberries there will be 
variety in size and color and yet the whole group will 




Fig. 8. A barren yard before planting 

not present the "hit-and-miss" appearance that would 
result if the shrubs were simply scattered about the 
border. 

Vines. — Vines should be used freely in planting the 
school yard as they make good screens for unsightly 
places and add a touch of life to surroundings which 
can not be secured in any other way. The sanitary 
closets may be covered with vines or screened with a 



PLANTING THE SCHOOL YARD 



33 



vine-covered trellis. Clematis and honeysuckle make 
good screens when used on a trellis. 

Suggestion. — The school j^ard should be partly 
planted this year. It is very important to outline a 




Fig. 9. Same house as Fig. 8. The change was made for a cost of less 
than ten dollars. 



plan for this work. Even if all the shrubs cannot 
be planted in one year, a definite plan should be made 
and followed. Plant as many as can be obtained 
this year and place them according to the plan. The 
expense of purchasing plants may be met through 
school activities. A part of the income from a bas- 
ket social, a silver offering taken up at a program 



34 



FARM PROJECTS 



offered by the school, or donations from some of the 
pubHc-spirited patrons may be used. Sometimes local 
nurseries or nurseries within the state will be glad 




Courtesy Illinois Deparlment Public Instruction. 
FlO. 10. A RURAL SCHOOL SHOWING " HOMELIKE" SURROUNDINGS 

to donate a few shrubs for school grounds in order 
to- encourage the planting of home grounds. The 
class should make every effort possible to enlist the 
interest and support of all the patrons of the school 
community. 



PLANTING THE SCHOOL YARD 



35 



Problems and Review Questions 

1. What flowering shrubs can you find growing in the com- 
munity ? List them and give the approximate flowering date of 
each. 

2. Where in the fields and woods have you seen winding paths? 
Can you tell how they were started ? 




Fig. II. Rural school without surroundings shown 
IN Fig. io 

3. What annual flowers are best adapted to your local climate? 

4. Draw a plan for a flower bed in your home yard, and name 
the flowers to be used. 

5. Tell how to transplant a young tree. 

6. When do farmers set out orchard trees in your community? 

7. Collect pictures clipped from nursery catalogues or from 
farm journals to show the value of planting the home yard. 

8. Draw an outline map of your home yard showing the build- 
ings and the trees and shrubs which are already growing. What 
can you do to improve the planting? 



VI 

SELECTING SEED CORN 

Home Work 

Field Work in Seed Selection.^Go into a field of 
white corn planted near a field of yellow corn. How 
far must you go before no yellow grains can be found 
on the white ears? Note the proportion of ears which 
hang down. How many inches distant from the ground 
are the lowest ears you can find? How many inches 
from the ground are the highest ears? Count the num- 
ber of stalks in one hundred hills of corn. Find the 
average number per hill. Find the average number of 
ears on one stalk by counting the number of ears on 
one hundred stalks. Select enough seed to plant the 
corn on your farm next year. 

The Seed Sack.— Tie the corners of a grain sack so 
as to make a shoulder strap. Sling the sack from the 
shoulder, as shown in the illustration on the next page. 
A hoop placed in the top of the sack makes it more con- 
venient. When the load begins to get heavy, carry it 
to a wagon or to a central point where it may be picked 
up later. How many ears can you carry? 

The Seed Ear. — Select the corn from a field where 
the corn has not been crossed with other varieties. 

36 



SELECTING SEED CORN 



37 



The ear which is chosen for the seed sack is to furnish 

the seed for almost a thousand stalks of corn next 

season. This means that 

a single ear should grow 

into about twenty bushels 

of corn. Use great care 

in making your selection. 

Choose well-matured, 

shapely ears of medium 

size which hang down. 

The stalk from which the 

ear is taken should be 

strong and vigorous. It is 

best to select from hills 

where two stalks are 

growing. Kernels should 

be deep and broad, not 

shallow or pointed. 

Seasoning the Seed. — 
To season the seed, place 
the corn which you have 
selected in a moderately 
warm room. Hang the 
ears from supports by placing them in a swing made 
of twine. Two double cords crossed each time an ear 
is put in place should be used to bind all the ears 
together. Be careful to place the corn hanger where 
the mice cannot reach the corn. If you suspend 
the hangers by wires the mice will be disappointed. 




Courtesy Illinois Asricidtural Experiment Station. 

Fig. 12. The seed corn sack 



38 FARM PROJECTS 

Note the difference in the time it takes to dry corn in 
the crib and to dry the seed corn that is hung in a 
warm room. Weigh ten ears of the corn from week to 
week until New Year's day to find the loss of mois- 
ture. Corn may be stored in wooden racks or in wire 
racks. The latter may be purchased or made from 
woven wire. Make suggestions of your own for seed 
corn racks. 

Facts to be Studied 

The Ear. — We have already learned that plants 
grow not to produce food for man, but to produce seed, 
by means of which the plant reproduces. The ear of 
corn is the result of a year's growth of the corn plant. 
All the energies of the plant have been directed toward 
making this ear of corn. We think of it as valuable 
because it will furnish food for men and animals. But 
what is more important, it is the seed for next year's 
corn crop. It is the fruit of the stalk of corn. When 
the ear has been completed the plant dies. Most an- 
nuals, plants living but one year, die as soon as the fruit 
or seed is mature. Biennials, plants living two years, 
usually do not produce seed or fruit the first year. 

The Kernel or Seed. — If we examine the kernel of 
corn, the bean, or any other seed, we find a tiny plant 
wrapped within the seed. One may think of this tiny 
plant as being in a basket of food, for the seed is really 
the food which this tiny plant will use when it begins 
to grow. In every grain of corn there is a baby corn 



SELECTING SEED CORN 



39 



plant which will produce a stalk of corn when the grain 
is planted under good conditions. 

It is true that the baby corn plant found in the grain 
does not look much like the stalk of corn that we see grow- 
ing in the field. But plant a grain of corn in some moist 
sand and see how quickly this tiny plant begins to look 
like a real stalk of corn. The newly hatched chick differs 




Fig. 13. A sample of good seed corn 

greatly from the mother hen in appearance. Instead of 
feathers the chick has down, the comb is undeveloped, 
and the color is not the same as that of the mother hen. 
So it is with the baby corn plant which we find in the 
kernel of corn; it has not yet developed the earmarks 
of the mature stalk of corn. The baby corn plant needs 
protection from the weather as much as the baby chick 
needs protection. Cold, wet weather will injure either. 
Careful Selection Necessary. — At the University of 
Illinois two plots of corn were planted to show whether 
the earmarks of corn could be changed by selection of 



40 FARM PROJECTS 

seed. One plot was planted with kernels from an ear 
of corn which had grown low on the stalk. The other 
was planted with kernels from an ear which had grown 
high on the stalk. The next year the first plot had 
many low ears and the second had many high ears. 
The lowest ears from the first plot were selected for 
seed for this plot the next year. The second plot was 
planted with seed from the highest ears found in the 
plot. This process was repeated for six years. At the 
end of this time, the average height of the ears in the 
first plot was less than two feet. The ears in the other 
plot averaged almost five feet from the ground. 

This experiment proves to us that the kernel of corn 
will produce corn much like the mother plant. The 
corn will have the same color as the seed. The new 
stalk will be like the stalk from which the seed is taken. 
If the seed ear grew five feet from the ground, a large 
proportion of the ears in the next crop will grow about 
five feet from the ground. 

If the farmer wishes to have his corn hang down for 
husking, he should select seed ears that hang down. 
Ears that hang down shed water and are not injured 
by rain and snow as upright ears are. 

Place to Select Seed. — There is but one place to 
select seed corn; that is, in the field where it grows. 
When you pick the seed ears from the corn in the crib 
you cannot tell whether the ear you select hung down 
or grew upright on the stalk. You cannot tell whether 
the ear grew five feet or two feet from the ground. 



SELECTING SEED CORN 41 

Time to Select. — Seed corn should be selected before 
the freezing weather sets in. However, the corn should be 
mature. The time of selecting will be before the regular 
husking time in most places. At this time you have the 
whole field to select from. If corn is allowed to remain 
in the field through the wet freezing weather, the baby 
corn plant or embryo in the seed is liable to be injured. 

Storage of Seed. — After the corn is picked it should 
be seasoned thoroughly in a moderately warm room. 
The air in the room should circulate freely in order to 
carry away the moisture. Good storage houses for 
seed corn are usually provided with furnace heat and 
with fans which force the air through the racks of corn. 
The author examined such a storage room filled with corn 
and found the corn in excellent condition in the month 
of January. In the same town was a storage room with- 
out heat and without ventilation; in fact, it was an old 
grocery store. The shelves had been filled with corn in 
the fall; the doors and windows had been kept closed. 
So much moisture had collected in this room that the 
doors of the building were warped. The corn on many 
of the shelves was covered with mold. Corn kept under 
such conditions will not grow into strong stalks when 
planted. 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. On the map of the neighborhood which has been outhned, 
shade the portions which were planted with corn last year. 

2. The class should arrange an exhibit of seed corn. Each 
member of the class may bring a ten-ear sample of the best corn he 



42 FARM PROJECTS 

can find. Ask one of the corn growers of the community to come 
in and judge the samples. How many shapes of kernels can you 
find in a dozen ears.? How many rows on each often ears.? 

3. Make up an exhibit of varieties of corn grown in the neigh- 
borhood by using one ear of each variety. These ears may be 
fastened to a smooth board and made to look very attractive. 
Note the differences in the varieties. 

4. Estimate the number of ears required to plant one acre. 
Is corn drilled or checked in your locality? What is the advan- 
tage of each method of planting? 

5. What are some earmarks or qualities of corn which you 
think should be changed by selecting seed in the field ? 

6. What can you do in order to change these qualities in your 
own field ? 



VII 
THE WHEAT CROP 

Home Work 

Survey. — Make a survey of your community to learn 
the acreage of wheat grown and after the data has been 
collected from the farms, shade the areas on your out- 
line maps which are to be planted in wheat this year. 
What varieties of wheat are grown ? Is the wheat hard 
or soft? Is most of wheat bearded or beardless? Ask 
the farmers about the bearded and beardless wheat. 
What advantages are claimed for each kind? What 
is the usual planting date in your community? How 
much is sowed per acre ? What crop is usually followed 
by wheat ? 

The Hessian Fly. — Go into a wheat field and exam- 
ine a number of stalks for the Hessian fly. The fly 
may be found in the stalk of the wheat as a small white 
worm called the larva. It may be in a tiny brown case 
which looks like a flaxseed. We call this the pupa. 
You may have to hunt for some time and to examine 
many stalks in order to find the Hessian fly. If the 
wheat has been planted very late perhaps there will be 
no flies. Bring specimens of the larva or of the brown 
pupa to school for class study. How does the fly affect 

43 



44 



FARM PROJECTS 




THE WHEAT CROP 45 

the stalk? What is Hkely to happen to the stalk the 
next spring? (See page 49 for the life of the Hessian fly.) 
Study of Flour. — Compare wheat bread made from 
high-grade flour with other breads, such as cornbread, 
whole-wheat bread, and rye bread. What differences 
in color, taste, texture, and quality do you find? If a 
flour mill is available in a near-by town, the members 
of the class should visit the mill and study the differ- 
ent processes in flour making. Secure samples of all 
the products made from wheat which are used on 
your farm. Name other products which you have 
read about. 

Facts to be Studied 

Importance. — As a food crop, wheat is one of the 
most important grain crops of the world. The United 
States produces more wheat than any other country, 
producing more than a billion bushels in 1915. Usually 
the wheat crop is less than that amount. Wheat bread 
is so common in this country that we are likely to con- 
sider it the common diet of all the people of the world. 
However, there are many people who have never tasted 
white-flour bread. Perhaps one half of the population 
of the world use other kinds of cereals as the main part 
of their daily ration, rice being the main food cereal in 
Oriental countries. The importance of wheat as a food 
was evident during the World War, when the movement 
of great armies in Europe was often limited by the 
wheat supply. It is said that at one time during the 



46 FARM PROJECTS 

war there was only enough wheat in France to supply 
the people for three days, but more was coming into 
the country from the United States every day. 

Wheat Areas and Yield in the United States. — The 
great wheat areas in the United States are in the 
North and West, Minnesota and Kansas being among 
the greatest wheat-producing states. The North 
Central States and the Dakotas also produce much 
wheat. The yield of the ten states having the highest 
yields in 1918, according to the United States Year 
Book, was as follows: 



I. 


Kansas 


137,056,000 bushels 


2. 


North Dakota 


68,400,000 bushels 


3- 


Nebraska 


60,480,000 bushels 


4- 


Oklahoma 


46,240,000 bushels 


5- 


IlHnois 


40,670,000 bushels 


6. 


Washington 


37,982,000 bushels 


7- 


Missouri 


32,721,000 bushels 


8. 


Minnesota 


29,116,000 bushels 


9- 


Ohio 


28,698,000 bushels 


0. 


South Dakota 


26,282,000 bushels 



Types of Wheat. — There are three types of wheat: 
the hard, the semi-hard, and the soft. The harder 
wheat is grown in the North and West, where the 
climate is dry, while the soft wheat is grown in the more 
humid climates. Wheat is also classified as spring 
wheat and winter wheat. Spring wheat is grown where 
the winters are too severe for winter wheat, while in 
warm sections, winter wheat is grown. Spring wheat 



THE WHEAT CROP 47 

is also grown to some extent as far south as St. Louis, 
Missouri. Winter wheat is planted in the fall and is 
ready for harvest from seven to eight months later. 
Most of the wheat grown in the United States is of this 
type. The hard wheats make a higher grade of flour 
for bread than soft wheats, but the flour made from the 
latter is better for pastries than the hard wheat flour. 

Planting. — Wheat requires a good seed bed, well 
pulverized, and made firm by much working and rolling, 
experiments having proved that early plowed ground 
gives the best results. If winter wheat is to be planted 
in October, the ground should be plowed in August or 
the early part of September, thus saving moisture and 
insuring a firm seed bed. Plowing at this time also 
kills many weeds which would otherwise shed their 
seeds in the soil. Winter wheat should be planted as 
late as possible to escape the damage done by the Hes- 
sian fly, which lays its eggs each year at about the same 
time in the fall. If the wheat is planted late, the flies 
lay their eggs before the wheat comes up, and do not 
damage the wheat. The seed should be well cleaned 
and fanned to rid it of light grains and weed seed. 

Cheat in Wheat.— Many farmers believe that wheat 
turns to cheat after a few years if the seed is not re- 
newed, but this is not true, as the cheat is a plant very 
difi^erent from the wheat plant. Cheat seed looks like 
wheat, except that it is smaller, and may be in the wheat 
seed when it is sown without being noticed by the 
farmer. It spreads very rapidly, a few grains in the 



48 FARM PROJECTS 

seed wheat producing large quantities the next year. 
Care should be exercised to have the seed wheat free 
from cheat. 

Care of the Wheat Field in Winter. — The wheat 
must live through the winter, and frequently it is in- 
jured by weather conditions. A long dry fall with a 
cold dry winter injures wheat because the plants do not 
get the proper start after planting. Heavy snows dur- 
ing the winter are considered very beneficial to wheat. 
Freezing and thawing of the ground injures wheat by 
*' pulling" it from the soil. Damage of this sort can be 
avoided by covering the ground with a thin layer of straw 
after the wheat comes up. Every boy knows that the 
ground in winter will remain frozen under boards even 
when the surface is thawing each day and freezing at 
night. The straw has the same effect as the boards, 
the ground remaining frozen during the day, thus pre- 
venting the "pulling" which otherwise would occur. 
There are straw spreaders on the market, which spread 
the straw in thin layers. The straw should be put on 
late in the fall, after the ground is frozen. 

Diseases. — There are a few diseases that are respon- 
sible for great losses in the wheat crop. S7niit is a 
disease which attacks the grains of wheat, destroying 
them, or making them so light that the grain is worth- 
less for feeding, the two main smuts being sti7iking smut 
and loose smut. The former can be eliminated to a 
very great extent by treating the seed with formalde- 
hyde, as suggested for oats smut. The loose smut is 



THE WHEAT CROP 49 

killed by treating the seed with hot water, from 128° to 
132° Fahrenheit, for five minutes. The smuts spread 
by tiny spores or ''seeds" which are blown by the wind, 
and which remain on the seed wheat. Rust is a disease 
which attacks the leaves of wheat, and affects it by 
checking growth. If you were to walk through a wheat 
field which was affected with rust, your shoes and 
clothing would be covered with a fine red substance 
like iron rust. There is no remedy known for the dis- 
ease. Scab is another disease which affects the head 
of wheat, injuring the covering of the grains. 

Insects in Wheat. — There are two insects which are 
very injurious to wheat. The most widely distributed 
is the Hessian fly which lays its eggs in the young wheat 
soon after it comes up in the fall. A little white worm 
which hatches from the eggs eats its way into the stalk 
and remains there all winter. In the stalk it changes 
to a brown pupa or "flaxseed," so called from its re- 
semblance to a flaxseed; and in the spring the adult 
fly comes out of the stalk, leaving a hole where it rested 
during the winter. This is very injurious to the wheat, 
having the same effect upon the wheat plant as girdling 
or barking has upon a tree. Wheat stalks affected 
by a number of Hessian flies are liable to fall or break 
when they begin to grow up in the spring, because the 
tiny holes left by the flies when they come out in the 
spring weaken the stalk to such an extent that it cannot 
withstand the wind. The flies which come from the 
wheat stalks in the spring lay eggs and produce another 



50 



FARM PROJECTS 



crop of worms, but the wheat is so far along at this 
time that Httle damage is done by the spring brood. 

Late planting in the fall is the best preventive, be- 
cause if the wheat comes up after the fly has laid its 
eggs, it will not be damaged by the little worms, for they 
remain where they hatch out, — probably in grass stalks 
if no wheat is present. 

The Chinch Bug. — The chinch bug has proved to be 
a very dangerous enemy to the wheat in certain sections 
of the United States. Perhaps the 
area most seriously afi^ected is the 
wheat section within a radius of one 
hundred miles of St. Louis, Missouri, 
where this insect has done millions of 
dollars worth of damage. 

The chinch bug is a small bug which 
lays its eggs in the wheat or oats early 
in the spring, just as the plants are 
beginning their growth. The insect 
does not have a "worm stage," but 
hatches into a tiny light-colored wingless bug resem- 
bling the adult bug in shape. These young insects 
feed on the growing plants near the crown of the roots. 
As the insect grows it changes in color to a red and 
then to grey. The wings develop gradually. It is full 
grown about the time the wheat is ready to harvest, 
but it does not fly until some time later. Instead, 
the bugs crawl from the wheat fields to the surround- 
ing fields. At this time they do great damage to 




Fig. 15. 
Adult chinch bug 
(greatly enlarged) 



THE WHEAT CROP 



51 






z 




13 


' , 1 


[- 


% t 


K 


' 







W 
K 
H 

Z 


^U^' 





J^ -\ 


tn 




< 




H 




o 






H 



3 ° 



u 

2 ^ 

ps < 

Z CO 

ai O 

O p 

o « 

z o 

? 5 

< K 

C/2 cj 






52 FARM PROJECTS 

corn. The writer has seen corn fields destroyed by 
the chinch bug within a short time after wheat harvest. 
The best check is a tar hne spread around the fields. 
The bugs will not cross this line and if holes are dug 
at intervals along the tar line, the bugs fall into them 
as they crawl up and down the line trying to find a 
place to cross. The holes will often be found full of 
chinch bugs within a short time. In a county where 
chinch bugs were very widely distributed in the year 
19 14, the author saw one field of corn almost com- 
pletely destroyed by these bugs because it was unpro- 
tected, while another field of corn, saved from the 
attack by a tar line, produced forty bushels of corn per 
acre. Chinch bugs live during the winter in rubbish, 
dead weeds, fences, and other shelters. 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. On an oudine map of the United States, shade the principal 
wheat-growing areas. 

2. Each pupil should bring a sample of the wheat grown at 
home to school for an exhibit. Compare the different varieties. 

3. Clip articles from farm journals about the insects and dis- 
eases which affect wheat. Bring the articles to school for discus- 
sion. 

4. Write a composition on one of the following subjects: — 
"Making Bread," "Threshing Wheat," " Planting Wheat." 

5. Describe the damage done by different insects and diseases. 
Discuss in class the remedies used by the farmers in your com- 
munity to destroy the insects and to prevent diseases. Which 
remedies give the best results ? 



THE WHEAT CROP 53 

6. What is considered a good yield of wiieat per acre in your 
locality? Is there a large variation in the yield per acre on differ- 
ent farms? Can you give reasons for this variation in yield? 

7. Considering the cost of machinery and other expense 
connected with raising the wheat crops on your farm, how many 
bushels of wheat at current prices will your crop have to yield per 
acre to pay the cost of producing the crop ? 

8. What fertilizers have been used in the community on wheat 
ground ? What results have been obtained ? 

9. The members of the class should bring to school stalks of 
wheat showing rust and smut. Also collect stalks that have been 
injured by the Hessian fly. 

10. Prepare a table giving the different wheat diseases, their 
effects and remedies. Do the same for injurious insects. 



VIII 
WEEDS 

Home Work 

The purpose of our observation of weeds as they 
grow in the field is to learn something definite about the 
most common weeds in the locality and to try to dis- 
cover a way of preventing the further growth and 
spreading of these weeds. 

On the way to school, count the number of different 
kinds of weeds found. It will be interesting to learn 
which member of your class can find most kinds of 
weeds. Collect weeds and bring them to school where 
they may be studied. The teacher will aid in pressing 
these specimens to make up a school exhibit of the com- 
mon weeds. Notice the tails of horses or the wool of sheep 
to find seeds of injurious weeds. Collect the seed of cock- 
leburr, tumbleweed, milkweed, plantain, quackgrass, 
and sticktight and try to find out how they might be 
distributed from field to field. Will they float on water.? 
Do they stick to clothing or animals.? Does the wind 
carry them .? Are the seeds likely to be found in seeds of 
the economic crops such as clover .? Collect such weeds as 
you can find which have beautiful flowers. Cut off some 
of the common weeds and watch them to learn whether 

54 



WEEDS 55 

they come up again from the roots. Sprinkle salt or brine 
about the roots of weeds and note the results. Count 
the number of weeds in a square rod in the corn field, 
or in any other field where a cultivated crop is growing. 
Do horses and cattle eat any weeds found growing 
on your farm.? What weeds bear seeds most abun- 
dantly .? Estimate the number of seeds on a smartweed. 
Where have you seen wild lettuce growing abundantly.? 



Facts to be Studied 

Weeds and the Damage They Do. — Weeds are un- 
desirable plants — they are "spongers," robbers, para- 
sites, tramps. The weed has been defined as a plant 
out of place, which suggests that any plant may be 
classed as a weed if it is so out of place as to become a 
nuisance or an annoyance to the farmer. Professor L. H. 
Bailey says: "A weed is a plant not wanted. There are, 
therefore, no species of weeds, for a plant that is a weed 
in one place may not be a weed in another." 

Weeds do much damage to crops. Sometimes they 
ruin whole fields of economic plants such as corn, oats, 
and wheat. The author has seen wild lettuce growing 
so thick and high in an oats field that no oats could be 
seen growing. Morning glories sometimes ruin the 
corn crop. Such weeds as ragweed, smartweed, and 
quackgrass are likely to be found in the garden. 

Some weeds, such as smartweed and the horse nettle, 
live from year to year, and are called perennials. 



S6 FARM PROJECTS 

Others live but one year, coming up the next year from 
the seed that was allowed to ripen the year before. An 
example of this class is the morning glory. Such plants 
are classified as annuals. Others such as the wild 
carrot, sometimes called bird's nest, are called biennials 
because they live two years. 

Kinds of Damage Done. — Weeds should not be al- 
lowed to grow for the following reasons : 

1. They rob the plant of sunlight by growing up and shading 
the plants. 

2. They rob the other plants of food and water. Crops like 
corn are cultivated mainly to keep down the growth of weeds. The 
weeds require so much water that the corn plant soon suffers if the 
weeds are allowed to grow. 

3. Weeds make a farm look untidy. They show shiftlessness 
on the part of the farmer. 

4. Weeds in a crop make the harvesting processes much more 
difficult. Any one who has shocked wheat or oats where nettles 
or thistles were growing knows what trouble these weeds cause 
the farmer. 

5. Some weeds injure the live stock. Burrs injure the wool 
of sheep. Ragweed and wild onion cause the cow's milk to have 
a bitter taste. 

6. Grains are made less marketable. Clover seed containing 
weed seed is worth less than clean seed. Wheat containing cheat 
is less valuable. The cheat grains impair the quality of the ffour 
made from wheat. Much grain is lowered in value because of the 
presence of weed seed. 

7. It is because of the presence of weeds in our crops that so 
much labor is required in preparation of the soil and in further 
cultivation. Labor in raising crops can be greatly reduced if the 
weeds can be held in check or prevented from growing. 



WEEDS 57 

Weeds Spread Rapidly and Grow Abundantly. — Weeds 
are more hardy than the cultivated plants. They 
spread more rapidly because they have so many seeds. 
Single large plants may have as many as half a mil- 
lion seeds, which gives them a marked advantage over 
the ordinary plants that are cultivated. The seeds are 
usually easily distributed as you will have learned by 
your observation of the weeds mentioned in the ques- 
tions. Some of the weed seeds, mustard for example, 
live for many years so that weeds may come up one year 
from seeds which were distributed many years before. 

Control of Weeds. — There are many things which a 
farmer can do to prevent or to check the growth of 
weeds. He should be sure that the seed which he 
plants is free from weed seed. The author knows of an 
instance which illustrates the danger from sowing un- 
clean seed. A man bought a load of clover seed screen- 
ings which he supposed would contain enough clover 
seed to make it profitable for him to sow it on his field. 
Within a year or two there were so many weeds on this 
field that it was almost impossible to harvest the crop. 
It would have paid him better to have bought a single 
peck of clean clover seed instead of the load of screenings. 

Destroying Weeds. — The crops should be rotated 
from year to year. Weeds that grow in the clover crop 
may be destroyed the year following by cultivation if 
corn is planted in the field. Weeds should be kept cut 
to the ground in fence corners, barn yards, and other 
uncultivated areas. Crops which need care should 



58 FARM PROJECTS 

be cultivated often enough to keep the weeds from get- 
ting a start. Weeds come up quickly after a rain, 
hence this is the best time to kill them. Sometimes 
weeds may be destroyed by sheep. If the corn field 
is weedy, sheep may be run in the field while the weeds 
are yet green in the fall. They will clean up the field 
without damaging the corn to any great extent. Boys 
should try to develop a hostile attitude toward weeds. 
Do not neglect to pull up a cockleburr that escapes the 
cultivator; it takes a little more time, but will save 
labor and waste in the end. The community should 
declare war on weeds. If one man allows weeds to 
grow unchecked on his farm, all his neighbors will suffer 
loss of crops due to his negligence, because seeds are so 
easily distributed. Remember that millions of dollars 
may be saved to the country if the growth of weeds can be 
checked. 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. What is a weed.? 

2. What are the three classes of weeds? 

3. Give the common ways by which weed seeds are distributed. 

4. What weeds cause milk to be bitter? 

5. What is the most troublesome weed to be found on your 
farm ? 

6. In what ways do weeds damage the farm crops? 

7. What weeds are said to be poisonous? 

8. Why do weeds have a better chance to grow than cultivated 
crops? 

9. Give different methods employed in controlling the growth 
of weeds on your farm. 



IX 
CROP ROTATION 

Home Work 

Rotations in the Community. — A survey of the com- 
munity should be made to determine the kinds of crops 
which the farmers grow and the order in which they are 
planted in one field. How many different rotations 
are found.? What grasses and clovers seem to be 
grown most widely in the community.? Find the total 
area which was planted in clover this year. Each 
pupil should report on a particular part of the school 
community. What is the total area of land repre- 
sented.? What per cent of this area was in clover 
during the season.? What crop is usually planted after 
clover? What crop precedes it on your farm.? Do 
farmers plow the clover crop under.? The survey 
should show not only the area given to clover, but to 
other crops as well. Tabulate as follows: 



Farm 



Total 
Acreage 



Acres 

OF 

Clover 



Acres 

OF 

Alfalfa 



Acres of Other Crops Grown 



Pasture Land. — How many acres of permanent pas- 
ture land are there on your farm? What grasses are 

59 



6o FARM PROJECTS 

used mostly for pasture in the community? Make a 
study of the pasture land and its use on your farm. 
Could more money be made by using the soil for a cul- 
tivated crop such as corn or wheat? Would it be 
possible to supply silage or other green crops to live 
stock during the months when they are usually on 
pasture? Discuss the advantages and disadvantages 
of such a plan. 

Forage for Live Stock. — Make a list of all roughage 
or forage crops used for feed on your farm. Does the 
farm produce all the hay needed for the live stock? 
What forage crops or hays are fed for milk production ? 
What forage crops are fed to horses? Estimate the 
number of tons of hay fed in one year on your farm. 



Facts to be Studied 

What Is Rotation? — Rotation of crops is the chang- 
ing of the crops on the various fields of the farm from 
year to year so that there will not be a continuous 
growth of one crop on any part of the farm. On some 
grain farms a rotation of corn, oats, and clover is prac- 
ticed; that is, corn is grown in a field one year, oats is 
grown in that field the next year, and clover is grown 
in the field the following year. By dividing the farm 
into fields it is possible to have a rotation on the differ- 
ent fields and to have all the crops growing each year. 
There are many advantages of crop rotation which 
deserve mention in this discussion. 



CROP ROTATION 6i 

Advantages. — Not only is crop rotation on a given 
field desirable but more than one crop should be grown 
at the same time. If but one crop is grown on the 
farm, much labor is required at the time when the 
planting and the harvesting are done, while at other 
times comparatively little labor is required. There 
cannot be permanent employment for labor unless crops 
are grown which mature at different times. Another 
advantage of crop rotation is that weeds are killed by 
cultivation. If the whole farm is planted with a crop 
such as timothy, which does not require cultivation, 
and no cultivated crop is planted for several years, the 
weeds will gain a foothold and probably crowd out the 
crop. When wild lettuce once gets a foothold in the 
oats field, it spreads rapidly and unless a cultivated 
crop is planted the next year, the lettuce will take the 
crop. (We shall learn something about the clovers 
in Chapter XXI and will find how valuable they are for 
feeding animals and for adding fertility to the soil.) 
By rotating the crops, the advantages of clovers may be 
secured and the fertility added by legumes will thus be 
distributed over the farms. 

Live Stock and Rotation. — Crop rotation is good 
practice for the live stock farmer, because if but one 
crop is grown on the farm, live stock cannot be fed un- 
less much feed is purchased; thus, by growing a variety 
of crops, more economy in feeding will be realized. 

Increased Yields. — Corn yields better when rotated 
with other crops. The claim is made that some crops 



62 FARM PROJECTS 

if grown too long on the same field poison the soil and 
prevent the growth of that crop. Whether there is 
much danger of soil poisoning or not, we know that 
crops yield better when they are not grown continuously 
on the same field. Corn yields much better when rotated 
with oats than when grown continuously. This fact 
has led some farmers to believe that corn and oats do 
not require the same kind of plant food, which is a mis- 
taken idea. Both crops take the same food elements 
from the soil but they take the elements in different 
proportions. 

An experiment has been conducted by the Illinois 
Experiment Station since 1888 to test the value of crop 
rotation. In this experiment three plots of good brown 
silt loam soil have been used. On one plot, corn has 
been grown continuously, on another corn and oats are 
rotated, and on the third corn, oats, and clover are 
rotated. The average yields of corn during ten years 
of cropping (1908-1917) are as follows:* 

Plot No. i Plot No. 2 Plot No. 3 

Corn continuously Corn and oats rotated Corn, oats, and clover 

loyears; 10 years; 10 years; 

28.3 bu. 37.6 bu. 40.7 bu. 

Corn per acre; Corn per acre; Corn per acre; 

average 10 crops average 5 crops ' average 3 crops 

1908-1917. 1908-1917. 1908-1917. 

The soil used in this experiment was not treated in 
any way with commercial fertilizer, the difference m 
yield being due to rotation in crops. These plots are 
still being kept up and are giving even more conclusive 

* Bui. No. 219, Agr. Exp. Sta. U. of 111. 



CROP ROTATION 63 

evidence each year. Experiments have been conducted 
in many other places proving the value of rotation. No 
farmer can afford to grow any crop continuously. Cot- 
ton grown continuously will destroy the fertility of the 
soil just as continuous corn crops do. 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the rotation 
used on your farm. What principles of rotation are involved? 

2. Give the essential points of crop rotation mentioned in the 
University of Illinois Experiment. 

3. At current prices of corn, what was the value per acre of the 
ten crops of corn produced on Plot No. i from 1908-1917? What 
was the average value per acre per year? Compare these values 
with the values of the corn crops on each of the other plots during 
this time. 

4. The five crops of oats grown on Plot No. 2 during the ten- 
year period, 1908-1917, averaged 38.6 bushels. What was the 
total value per acre of the corn crop and oats crop on this plot 
during the ten-year period? Use current prices. 

5. Would the grain farmer who raised no live stock to sell, be 
likely to grow the same crops in a rotation as a live stock farmer? 

6. On a map of your home farm indicate the crops grown this 
year. What crops will be grown next year on the various fields? 

7. Propose a three-year rotation of crops adapted to the condi- 
tions in your community. Talk this over with your father. 



X 

SOIL FERTILITY 

Home Work 

Yields. — Study the production of food in your com- 
munity, and collect all the information you can get 
concerning the yields of all crops grown in the commu- 
nity, tabulating each crop separately. Use the follow- 
ing form for tabulation: 

Crop: Corn 



Farm 


Number of Acres 


Average Yield 


Total Yield 


Value 


Mr. A. 


40 


43 


1600 


iizoo 


Totals 











Causes of Variation in Yield. — What factors can you 
observe which seem to cause the differences in yields? 
Learn all you can about the soil which yielded the 
largest crop. How does it differ from the soil which 
yielded the smallest crop .? On which fields was manure 
applied? What differences can you see in the growing 
crop where manure has been applied and where nothing 
has been applied? Do those farms which produced the 
largest yield grow most live stock? What differences 
in color do you find among the soils? What kinds of 
fertilizers are used on the soil? Has the yield of the 

64 



SOIL FERTILITY 65 

crops on your home farm decreased or increased during 
the last ten-year period? To what is the decrease or 
increase due? Will the value of the product grown on 
an acre of ground on your home farm purchase as much 
clothing for the family as the value produced by the 
same acre ten years ago would have purchased at that 
time ? 

Facts to be Studied 

Importance of Increasing Crop Yields. — The popu- 
lation of the United States is increasing more rapidly 
than the production of food products is increasing, 
which is one cause of the present high cost of living. 
The demand is rapidly becoming greater than the 
supply, and as there is comparatively little untilled 
land at present, our hope for the future lies in increased 
yields. Experiments have proved that yields can be 
increased greatly by proper attention to the soil. The 
farmer of the next generation cannot farm as his father 
and grandfather farmed, or the world will suffer from 
the lack of sufficient food. 

What Is Soil Fertility? — We have learned in another 
chapter that all plants require food just as animals re- 
quire food to keep them alive and to make them grow. 
If animals are shut in a barn yard and food is kept away 
from them, they will soon die. Plants will not live 
unless they are furnished with plenty of food and water. 
Some of the plant's nourishment comes from the air 
and if the plant were able to live entirely from the food 



66 FARM PROJECTS 

it obtains from the air, the soil would not be an impor- 
tant factor in crop production. The plant cannot live 
on this food alone, although about ninety-eight per 
cent of its weight is made up of the carbon which is 




Courtesy Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. 

Fig. 17. Showing the necessity' of building up poor land by the use of 

PLANT foods, if FARMING IS TO BE PROFITABLE 

taken from the air by the leaves of the plant. There are 
some elements of plant food, mostly mineral elements, 
contained in the soil which are necessary to plant 
growth. The plant, as we have said, requires ten differ- 
ent food elements or substances for growth. They are: 



SOIL FERTILITY 67 

(a) Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, obtained from the air and 
water. 

(b) Calcium, magnesium, iron, sulphur, phosphorus, potassium, 
and nitrogen, obtained from the soil. 

If an abundance of all the elements named in group (b) 
is contained in the soil, the soil is said to be fertile. 
If the soil lacks one or more of the elements named, it 
is said to be unfertile or low in fertility. Fertile soil 
is called "rich" soil, and unfertile soil is generally 
known as *'poor" soil. 

How Rich Soil Becomes Poor.— Plants live on the 
food from the soil in much the same way that horses 
live on the grass of the pasture. The horses will thrive 
as long as plenty of grass remains in the pasture, but 
when the pasture gets *'low, " the horses begin to lose 
flesh. Horses that are allowed to remain on the pas- 
ture lands of the north and west after the grass is gone, 
sometimes die of starvation. Plants thrive as long as 
there is plenty of food in the soil but after a few years 
of continuous cropping, the plants do not thrive so 
well and will finally cease to grow unless more food is 
applied to the soils. 

Soils may become unfertile through a loss of plant 
food due to the washing and leaching of rains, and if 
soils are allowed to remain without care, they are likely 
to lose much food in this way. Hillsides become poor 
very rapidly due to the rains which wash the plant food 
down into the valleys, where it remains to make the 
bottom lands richer than before. 



68 FARM PROJECTS 

Earmarks of Poor Soil. — One can tell much about the 
fertility of the soil by observing the crops that grow on 
it. Plants that grow on a poor soil are usually smaller 
and have less foliage than those growing on a rich soil, 
and the color is not so dark and green as it should 
be. Corn which grows on a poor soil usually has a 
yellow color rather than the deep green color which it 
should have. Such plants as red sorrel and white top 
are likely to be found growing on sour unfertile soils. 
Drought affects crops growing on poor soils much more 
than on rich soils. Plants that have plenty of food are 
stronger and are better able to withstand the effects of 
dry weather because they have made a better growth. 
Rich soils cause plants to grow more rapidly and thus 
reach maturity earlier, although plants growing on poor 
soil sometimes become dry and stop growth, thus 
apparently reaching maturity at an early date. Real 
maturity has not as a rule been reached in such in- 
stances. 

Food Elements Most Needed. — As stated before, 
food is obtained from the air by the leaves of the plant, 
while the remainder must be obtained from the soil. 
There is an abundant supply of iron in the soil to supply 
the crops. The required substances are found in most 
soils with the exception of nitrogen, phosphorus, and 
potassium. We shall learn that nitrogen may be se- 
cured by growing such crops as clover, alfalfa, and soy- 
beans, but phosphorus and potassium must be applied 
to the soil in the form of fertilizer of some kind. 



SOIL FERTILITY 69 

Barnyard manure contains all three elements and will 
increase the yields of crops. Farmers are likely to 
underestimate the value of the manure produced on 
the farm. If the manure is piled out of doors and 
exposed to rain and snow for several months, from 
one half to two thirds of its value as a fertilizer will 
be lost. This loss is due to '"heatings" and to washing 
from rains. Manure should be kept in concrete pits, 
preferably under cover, or hauled to the fields and 
spread frequently. Progressive farmers rotate the 
crops and "plow under" some green crop, usually 
clover, once every three or four years. This improves 
the condition of the soil and makes it richer. 

Value of Fertilizers. — While it is true that yields 
can be increased by applying large quantities of manure 
to the soil and by plowing clover under, it is also true 
that there are some substances which cannot be sup- 
plied in large enough quantities by this method. 
Farmers use large quantities of ground rock phosphate 
which is a rock containing the phosphorus needed by 
plants. This rock is taken from the quarries in Idaho, 
Tennessee, and some other states where it is found 
in large quantities, then ground or crushed until it 
is very fine, and put on the soil. About a half ton 
per acre is considered a fair amount to use. Bone 
meal, a finely pulverized substance made by grinding 
the bones of animals, is also used extensively and 
is an excellent fertilizer for increasing crop yields 
quickly. Other forms of mineral fertilizers are used by 



70 FARM PROJECTS 

farmers in order to increase crop yields. Fertilizer 
companies sell many brands of fertilizers called "com- 
plete fertilizers" because they contain all the mineral 
substances usually lacking in soils, but most of these 
fertilizers are expensive and are not so profitable to 
the farmer as the ground rock phosphate, limestone, 
and manure. 

The important point to be remembered in connection 
with soil fertility is that farmers should grow clover 
and turn under some green crops of it in order to make 
the soil more fertile. Farmers should consult the agri- 
cultural agent in the county or write to the state experi- 
ment station to find out what kinds of fertilizer are best 
for the soils in the community. 

Review Exercises 

1. The largest wheat crop produced in the United States was 
1,000,000,000 bushels. If five bushels of wheat make one barrel 
of flour, from which 240 loaves of bread, each weighing one pound, 
may be made, how many loaves of bread per person could have 
been made in 1915, when this crop was produced? The popula- 
tion of the United States at that time was approximately 100,000,- 
000 persons. Assume that all the wheat remained in this country 
and was made into flour. 

2. How many loaves of bread could have been made from the 
wheat produced on your farm this year? 

3. What per cent of the crops produced on your farm this year 
was sold from the farm? 

4. Give suggestions for improving the crop yields on your farm. 

5. What is meant by the term "plant food"? 



SOIL FERTILITY 71 

6. Give examples of the use of fertilizer in your community. 

7. Make a study of one or two fields on your farm .to find out 
what fertilizer should be used this year, 

8. If crops look yellow, it is likely that the soil does not con- 
tain enough nitrogen. Observe the crops in your community to 
determine whether nitrogen is needed in the soil. 



XI 
THE USE OF LIMESTONE ON SOILS 

Home Work 

The exercises to be worked out at home in connection 
with the use of Hme will consist of a few simple experi- 
ments which every boy and girl can easily perform. 
The purpose of these experiments is to show the effect 
of lime upon soils. 

1. Add a half teaspoonful of baking soda to a little vinegar in 
a glass and note the result. Taste this foaming liquid as soon as 
the soda is stirred into the vinegar, then taste the liquid that 
remains after the foam has disappeared. What difference do you 
notice? The soda corresponds to the limestone and the vinegar 
to the acid in the soil. The action of the soda and vinegar 
is similar to that of limestone and acid in the soil. 

2. Place a lump of quicklime in a box and add water slowly. 
What happens? Compare the quicklime with lime which has 
been airslaked by remaining exposed to the air for a long time. If 
limestone is available, compare it with other forms of lime. Com- 
mon marble is limestone. Add some vinegar to a piece of marble 
or limestone and note what happens after a few days' time. 

3. Obtain prices on limestone in carload lots delivered to \'our 
town. 

4. Is limestone used in your community? Ask some of the 
farmers to tell you why they purchase limestone. How much is 
put on an acre of soil? 

72 



THE USE OF LIMESTONE ON SOILS 73 

Facts to be Studied 

Sour Soils. — Many soils become sour after they have 
been cropped for long periods of time. A sour soil is 
one which contains some acid. Such soils do not con- 
tain enough acid to make them like vinegar to the taste, 
but do contain enough to show acid when tested and 
to have a bad effect upon crops. 

Test for Acid. — The methods of testing for acid in 
soil are simple, the simplest test being the litmus paper 
test. -Litmus paper is paper which is saturated with 
litmus, a kind of blue dye, which turns red when it 
comes in contact with acid. When the red litmus is 
then placed in contact with an alkali, such as common 
ash lye or washing lye, the blue color is restored. 
When blue litmus paper is placed in contact with wet 
soils containing acid, it turns pink or red because of the 
effect of the acid on the litmus. If no acid is present 
in the soil, the paper does not change color. The paper 
should be allowed to remain on the wet soil for ten 
minutes. Litmus paper costs very little, and may be 
purchased at any drug store. 

Effect of Acid in Soils. — Legumes such as clover, 
alfalfa, and soy-beans do not thrive in sour soils. Soil 
may become so sour that clover will not grow at all. 
Acid in the soil checks the growth of most other crops. 
A few crops such as redtop seem to thrive in sour soils, 
red sorrel growing abundantly in sour soils. Many 
other weeds will be found growing on sour soils where 



74 



FARM PROJECTS 




THE USE OF LIMESTONE ON SOILS 75 

clover will not grow. If red sorrel is found in a field, 
it is a clear indication that the soil is sour and needs 
lime. 

Improving Sour Soils. — The first step in improving 
sour soils is the addition of something which will destroy 
the acid. You have found by adding soda to vinegar 
and allowing it to stand a few minutes that the sour- 
ness has been taken from the vinegar. Soda would 
have the same efi^ect upon the acid in the soil, but of 
course no farmer could afi^ord to buy such an expensive 
substance to put on his soil. Lime will act in the same 
way, destroying the acid present; and as it is com- 
paratively inexpensive, it is being used very widely to 
destroy the sourness in soils. Quicklime is usually 
thought to be too caustic; that is, it will burn the roots, 
leaves, and other organic matter in soils and should not 
be used. Slaked lime may be applied, but it is more 
expensive than limestone. The best form to use is 
the limestone which comes directly from the quarry. 
This stone is crushed and applied to the soils as a 
finely pulverized rock. Quicklime is obtained from 
limestone by partially burning the limestone or lime 
rock in kilns. 

How to Apply. — The simplest way to apply lime- 
stone is to spread it with shovels from the wagon bed 
as the load is hauled over the ground, but many farmers 
consider that this method requires too much hard work 
and use a limestone spreader. The spreader looks 
much like a grain drill and spreads the lime as a drill 



^e FARM PROTECTS 

drops the grain. When this method is followed, the 
lime is usually hauled to the field and piled in conven- 
ient places where the spreader may be filled. One 
method is to attach the spreader to the rear end of a 
wagon which is loaded with limestone. One man 
drives the team while another keeps the spreader filled 
with limestone, but of course this makes a very heavy 
load for the horses or tractor to draw. 

If soils are very sour, that is, if they are so sour 
that clover does not grow readily, from two to four tons 
of limestone should be applied per acre, at first. The 
county agricultural agent can give definite information 
regarding particular soils. 

When to Apply. — Limestone may be applied at any 
time in the year with good results. A plan followed in 
some communities is to apply it on the frozen ground 
during the winter when work is slack. It may be ap- 
plied on the wheat ground just before sowing time. It 
is best not to turn the limestone under by plowing when 
it is first applied, as, when this is done, the limestone 
does not affect the acid in the top layer of soil to any 
great extent, and this layer is the important one for 
crop growth. 

Results from the Use of Lime. — The use of lime on 
soils which were very sour has more than doubled the 
former yield of clover; and, through the clover, has in- 
creased the yield of other crops. In 191 8 the average 
wheat yields on ten experiment fields operated by the 
University of Illinois in the sour soil area were as follows : 



THE USE OF LIMESTONE ON SOILS -jj 

Average Yields of Wheat on Ten Illinois Experiment Fields* 
Plot i Plot 2 Plot 3 

Nothing applied to the soil Farm manure put on soil Manure and limestone 

added to soil 
I918 — 6.2 bu. wheat per 1918 — 8 bu. wheat per 1918 — 15. i bu. wheat 

acre acre per acre 

The yields given above represent the average yields 
of ten plots of ground located in different sections of 
Illinois where the soil was sour. Compare these yields 
with the yield of wheat on your home farm. These 
fields had been farmed by the University for different 
periods ranging from one to seven years, and crop 
rotation including legumes was practiced. The lime 
was very beneficial to the wheat crop, as may be seen 
from the results. The lime made the soil sweet and 
made it possible to grow clover, which when turned 
under enriched the soil for wheat. In 1918, the yields 
were not so great as in 1917, but the increase due to 
limestone is very evident. These same fields when 
treated with manure, limestone, and rock phosphate 
yielded 27 bushels in 1917, and 19.7 bushels in 1918, 
showing that when phosphate was used in addition to 
limestone even greater yields were possible. 

Extent of the Use of Limestone. — When the neces- 
sity for more food products was made evident by the 
World War, farmers at once began to make every effort 
to increase production. The demand for limestone in 
areas where sour soil was limiting crop yields was so 
great that orders could not be filled. In some instances 

* Illinois Experiment Station Circular 229. 



78 FARM PROJECTS 

single counties report that more than two hundred car- 
loads of lime were used in a single season. Such facts 
tell us that farmers no longer believe that the farms will 
produce crops year after year without the use of ferti- 
lizers, and that farmers have learned the value of lime- 
stone. This material is rapidly becoming a necessity on 
the farm. 

Review Exercises and Questions 

1. Describe the action of limestone on sour soils. 

2. What plants grow on sour soils? Do you find these plants 
growing in your community? 

3. How much limestone would be required to cover the tillable 
soil on your father's farm, applymg four tons per acre? 

4. At $2 per ton, what would the above amount of lime cost? 

5. A carload of lime contains about forty tons. How much 
can you haul with a team and wagon? How many loads would 
you have to haul to unload a carload? Could you unload a car 
in the two days allowed by railroad companies? Why do railroad 
companies allow the farmer only two days to unload a car? 

6. In the experiment mentioned, limestone increased the wheat 
yield in 1917, 12.7 bushels per acre. At the present price of wheat, 
how much limestone at $z per ton could be purchased with the 
mcrease ? 

7. Suppose your father owned land like the soil used in the ex- 
periment and grew one crop of wheat every three years. If no 
fertilizer is applied, how many bushels per acre will be obtained 
from the four crops of wheat grown during the next twelve years, 
if the yield is the same as that obtained in Plot i in 1918? What 
will be the value at current prices ? If the land is treated with lime- 
stone and manure how much money will he receive per acre for the 
four crops, assuming the yield to be the same as on Plot 3 in 1918. 



XII 
CORN JUDGING 

Home Work 

Each pupil should carefully select a ten-ear sample 
of corn from the field or from the crib and bring it to 
school for judging purposes. Select the ears as nearly 
alike in shape, size, and color as is possible. The 
laboratory work to be done in corn judging will be done 
at school. There should be several samples on exhibit. 
Care should be taken not to shell off any of the kernels 
in handling the corn. The ears may be tied in a bundle 
and then wrapped to prevent the kernels from being 
shelled off as the sample is being carried to school. 
The sample should be labeled with a tag bearing 
your name. 

Class Exercise 

Aim. — The aim of the work in corn judging should 
be, not necessarily to become expert corn judges, but 
to learn to select seed corn more intelligently. You 
can probably get much help from the farmers in your 
community. At first, an ear of corn is likely to be 
just an ear of corn to most of you, much the same as a 
word is a word to the primary pupil before he has 

79 



8o FARM PROJECTS 

learned to tell one from another and to see the differ- 
ences between them. The work this month, however, 
furnishes a splendid opportunity for you to learn to see 
differences and variations in seed corn. 

Value of Points. — Pads of score cards may be ob- 
tained from the school supply companies, or made up 
from the one on page 84. The score card is intended 
to be a guide to aid in the judging of corn, and the num- 
ber of points given to each part are for comparison. 
Unless you keep this point in mind, you are likely to get 
the idea that the color of the corn is ten per cent of its 
total value. This is not true, as the ten per cent is 
assigned as a basis for comparison. The score card 
may be used as a guide, but the results which you 
get will depend entirely upon your ability to see the 
differences and to compare these differences fairly. 
The points on the score card may be divided into two 
groups. Breed characteristics are: color, type, shape, 
and size. Individual characteristics are: tips, butts, 
uniformity, space between rows and between kernels, 
percentage of corn, length, circumference, and market 
condition. 

Study of the Ear. — Much attention should be given 
to the breed characteristics, since they are important 
in seed corn. Rules for applying the score card values 
may be found on the score card. Begin by studying 
an ear of corn, applying the points indicated on the 
score card to a single ear in order to fix the meaning of 
the terms and rules to be used in scoring corn. Each 



CORN JUDGING 8r 

pupil should select two ears of corn at random from 
samples on hand and, without any suggestion from the 
teacher, should list all the differences he is able to see. 
Classify these differences under the two heads men- 
tioned in the preceding paragraph. 

Type. — Special study of corn -with regard to type is 
necessary for selecting seed. Type is determined by 
the character of the kernel, and the general make-up 
of the ear, some kernels being smooth and some rough 
in nature, while some are of different shapes. There 
is as much difference between an ear of corn having a 
rough kernel and an ear having a very smooth kernel 
as there is between a draft horse and a driving horse. 
A farmer usually makes up a team which is to draw the 
plow by using two horses of the draft type, and not by 
using one draft horse and one light driving horse, but 
most cribs of corn show corn of decidedly different 
types. Pick out ears representing various types of 
corn. Visit cribs or bring reports on cribs at home, 
showing the various types of corn. Note that there 
can be no "uniformity" of samples unless there is but 
one type. 

Color. — Color in itself does not affect the food value 
of corn very much, if at all. Color is a breed earmark. 
Uniformity of color indicates careful selection, and food 
values and yield may be affected by selection. It is 
important then to have one color and to keep this color 
in mind in selecting seed. Note the various shades and 
combinations of color to be found in a single field or 



82 FARM PROJECTS 

crib where little attention has been paid to the selection 
of seed.* 

Shape and Size. — Shape and size are breed charac- 
teristics which help to determine the yield, and yield 
is the big factor to be considered in the selection of 
seed corn. Compare a cylindrical ear with a pointed 
ear as to weight and percentage of corn on the cob by 
shelling the two ears and weighing the grain and cobs 
of each. 

Uniformity of Tips and Butts. — Much attention should 
be given to uniformity of exhibit when scoring ten- 
ear samples, but beginners are likely to attach too 
much weight to the value of tips and butts when scoring 
corn. When seed corn has been selected with a great 
deal of attention to the way tips and butts are filled, 
ears may become shorter and smaller, thus reducing 
the yield. It is important then to select rugged ears. 
An ear with rows running straight to the tip, without 
the loss of any rows, although the tip may not be en- 
tirely covered, is preferable to an ear the tip of which is 
entirely covered, but which has kernels growing small 
and rows becoming crooked toward the tip. 

Kernels. — Compare kernels of different shapes. 
Shell the corn from an ear having pointed kernels and 
from an ear having broad deep kernels, weigh corn and 
cob, and determine the percentage of corn on each ear. 
The shape of the kernel has much to do with germination 

*NoTE TO Teacher. — Some attention may be given here to the principle of plant 
breeding — "Like begets like." Present examples which illustrate this principle. 



CORN JUDGING 



83 



and the early growth of the seed. Corn with small 
pointed kernels may germinate, but its early growth 
will not be so vigorous as it would be if the kernel were 
larger. Plant seed of different shapes in boxes of moist 




Fig. 19. Kernels of corn showing different shapes. Note size of germ. 

sand and record the time for germination of seed in 
each instance and note the early growth in each in- 
stance. The kernel has wrapped up within its coat the 
possibilities of the new corn plant, and this new plant 
will possess, in general, the earmarks of the mother plant 
that produced the grain. The only way to select seed 
corn is to go into the field and select the mother plants. 



84 



FARM PROJECTS 



Corn Festival. — Arrange for a corn festival during 
the latter part of the month. Poems relating to corn, 
essays on corn selection, a demonstration of scoring corn, 
and a talk on types or uses of corn, may be included. 
A judging contest open to every one may be made a 
feature of the day. If possible, a corn show should be 
held. Obtain the services of disinterested persons who 
are competent to judge corn to award the ribbons or 
prizes. 

A Score Card for Corn 



Characters to be Judged 


Points 


1 


2 3 4 


5 




S 
10 

10 
S 
5 
5 

10 

10 

5 

5 

10 
10 
10 












2. Shape of ear 

3. Length of ear 
































5. Tips of ear 

6 Butts of ear 






















7. Kernel — ^uniformity and shape. . 

8. Color of grain and cob 

9. Space between rows 

10. Space between kernels at cob. . . 

11. Vitality or seed condition 

12. Triieness to type 

13. Proportion of corn to cob 










































































1 








100 


























Your fathers and mothers should be invited to the 
festival in order that they may see the corn which is 
exhibited and may know something about the work 
you are doing while you are at school. Perhaps during 
the study period for English your teacher will allow 
you to write invitations to them. 



CORN JUDGING 85 

A Score Card for Utility Corn 

General Appearance 45 % 

Indentation 5 

Ears with a distinctly rough indentation are frequently imperfectly 
matured owmg to the presence of disease. Very rough indentation is 
objectionable and will be discriminated against. 

Kernel Composition 5 

Starchy seed ears produce many diseased plants which give unsatis- 
factory yields. 

Shank Attachments lO 

Many ears which have pink, slightly pink, brown, or shredded shank 
attachments were produced on diseased stalks. Frequently such ears 
may have an otherwise good appearance but whenever any of the above 
symptoms are found, the ear should be discarded. (Note: All ears 
must have the shank attachments intact just as the ear was broken 
from the shank. Any effort to trim out or alter the shank appearance 
will eliminate the sample from competition. This does not apply to 
ears which were stored on hangers.) 

Tips of Ears 5 

The tips of the ears should be bright and free from "weathering" or 
discoloration of any kind. 

Luster or Polish lO 

Ears havmg a bright, rather oily appearance have proved themselves 
superior as seed ears. This appearance indicates a normal, healthy 
development and complete maturity and is associated with greater 
vigor. Such ears possess higher yielding qualities than ears which are 
rather dull, dead or dry looking and which have no luster. 

Kernel Characteristics lO 

Kernels from norhially matured healthy ears are nearly always thick, 
plump, bright, and clean, and possess well-developed germs. Such 
kernels usually have distinctly horny endosperm. A moldy or dis- 
colored condition of the kernels near the point of attachment to the cob 
indicates disease. 

Germination Record 35% 

Vitality and Vigor 20 

The seedlings in the germination test should show thick, sturdy sprouts 
and good root development. Tall, slender, weak seedlings and those 
havmg short slender feeder roots are not desirable. 

Freedom from Disease Symptoms 15 

Type and Uniformity 20% 

All ears in a sample should be uniform. The chief points considered 
here are shape and size of ear and uniformity of kernel. These vary 
with the variety and section of the state where the corn was grown. 



86 FARM PROJECTS 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. Ten ears of corn weigh seven pounds; the shelled corn 
from same weighs six pounds. Find per cent of corn and per 
cent of cob. 

2. Yellow Dent corn should contain 88% of corn and 12% of 
cob. Find the standards for other varieties of corn. The legal 
standard for corn in the corn belt is 56 lb. per bushel for shelled 
corn and 70 lb. per bushel for ear corn. According to this stand- 
ard, what is the per cent of corn and of cob.? What are the legal 
standards of weight in your state.? 

3. A farmer has 40 acres of corn which yields 36 bushels 
per acre. How much will he receive for his crop if he sells it in 
the ear at 60 cents per bushel.? If he sells it as shelled corn, as- 
suming that the corn shells out 86% of corn.? Will it pay him 
to shell if the shelling costs \yi cents per bushel.? 

4. Find the capacity in bushels of a corn crib twenty feet long, 
eight feet wide, and eight feet high. 

5. Find the dimensions of a crib large enough to contain the 
corn from the farm mentioned in problem 3. 

6. What varieties of corn are grown in the community.? 

7. What variety yields best.? 

8. Why should the shape of ear be considered' in judging corn ? 

9. Write a description of the best ten-ear sample of corn brought 
to the schoolhouse. 

10. In what way will this exercise help you in your corn produc- 
tion.? Discuss fully. 



XIII 
TESTING SEED CORN 

Home Work 

The Box Method. — Construct from boards one-half 
inch thick, a box 20 inches long and 20 inches wide. 
This size is a convenient one and allows ample space to 
test one hundred ears at one time. 

Fill the boxes with sawdust or clean sand, almost 
level with the top of the box, thoroughly moistening 
the material with water. Mark off the surface into two- 
inch squares by making little furrows with a stick or 
lead pencil. Begin at one end of the box and make the 
first furrow or mark two inches from the end, and the 
second one two inches from the first. Follow the same 
method in making the furrows which mark the surface 
lengthwise. It is very important to mark off tlie sur- 
face with straight furrows in order to keep the kernels 
of corn in order later. The furrows can best be made 
straight by laying a yardstick across the top of the box 
as a guide. 

The ears to be tested should be arranged in a definite 
order and kept in the same order until the test is 
finished. Place one hundred ears in a rack, or in rows 
on the floor or on a table. If the ears are kept in the 

87 



88 



FARM PROJECTS 



same order it should not be necessary to number them, 
but as a check it will be best to number the ears the 
first time by attaching a cardboard tag to the butt end 
of the cob with a pin or small nail. 

Planting the Kernels. — Remove six kernels from each 
ear, two from a point about two inches from the tip, two 





--a 








^g.^-:--* ~ -"-"^=<i?KSi6i(j__.,.^' '"^ 


ai 


H. 


n 


IBJ^**^ ."T^T 






H 


^^^^^i.:^' " '^i^^^^lHHI 


Miji^g^ r'lli A 


^MjHBjif<^SHH 




^^^^^■H^^^^0^^^ ^^^z^^^^ v^ 


iiX>^^^^ 


^^&\'^-%i^u^ 




WKKtL 




HHHjHj 


lii 


HHi^^^t'^^^^^^s^^MJH 




^^1 



Fig. 20. A sawdust corn tester 



from a point about two inches from the butt, and two 
from the central portion of the ear. Begin with ear 
number one, and as soon as the kernels are removed, 
place them in the upper left-hand square of the seed box. 
Remove six kernels from ear number two and place 
them in the square to the right of the first. Continue 
in this way, beginning at the left of each row of squares. 
Mark the square containing the kernels from ear num- 
ber one by placing a nail or stick in it. Thus when the 



TESTING SEED CORN 



89 



box is filled it contains kernels from one hundred ears 
and each square represents an ear. Cover all the ker- 
nels with sand or with a cloth. It may be that the 
marks in the sand will disappear, but when the kernels 




Courtesy of Ginn ^ Co. 

Fig. 21. Placing kernels of corn in a testing box 

germinate it will be easy to distinguish the separate 
groups of kernels. 

Keep the box in some place, such as the kitchen, 
where the temperature is warm most of the time. The 
boxes should not be allowed to become very cold or the 
germination may be checked. 

Checking Results. — After five days count the num- 
ber of kernels that have sprouted. If a kernel seem> 



90 FARM PROJECTS 

to be weak, do not count it as a good one. What per- 
centage of the six hundred kernels in one box germi-. 
nates ? If one of the six kernels in a square fails to grow, 
it is an indication that other kernels on the ear from 
which it was taken are dead, also, and that ear should 
be discarded as being unfit for seed. What per cent 
of the ears do you find good for seed .? How much time 
is required to test one hundred ears of corn .? How soon 
do the first sprouts appear? Which bursts forth from 
the kernel first, the root or the stem.? If ten per cent 
of the seed planted fails to grow, how many hills per 
acre will be missing on your farm.? Test some of the 
kernels taken from the tips and butts of the ears and 
determine whether they grow as well as the more shapely 
kernels from the central portions. The germ lies on 
one side of the kernel and this side always faces in the 
same way. Does it face the tip of the ear or the butt 
of the ear.? Count the number of rows on ten ears of 
corn and find whether there is an odd number of rows 
on any ear. 

Facts to be Studied 

Seed Should Be Tested. — The farmer who wishes to 
set out an orchard is careful to choose only those trees 
which are strong and healthy. It is not so easy to 
judge the vitality of seed corn by examining it; still the 
results which the farmer would get from poor seed are 
as truly unsatisfactory as those he would get if he set 
out a dead or diseased tree in the orchard. The only 



TESTING SEED CORN 91 

way to know whether the seed will grow is to test 
each individual ear to determine not only whether the 
germs are alive or dead, but whether they are strong 
enough to make a vigorous growth. If a few kernels 
on the ear of corn show these good qualities, one 
may be reasonably sure that the other kernels will 
also grow. 

Causes of Poor Seed. — Many different factors may 
cause the little kernels of corn to fail to produce satis- 
factory corn plants. Cold, wet weather weakens the 
germ or baby corn plant, sometimes causing the kernel 
to rot when corn is allowed to remain in the field too 
late in the season. Disease may attack the kernels in 
wet weather causing the germ to die or weaken. If the 
seed is kept in a moist room at warm temperature, the 
germs will start to grow and then die later on. Some- 
times sprouts may be seen on some kernels at husking 
time. If a few kernels on the ear are beginning to 
sprout, the ear should be discarded because it is likely 
that other kernels have begun growth. Late maturity 
is perhaps the most common cause of poor seed. In 
the northern part of the corn area of the United States, 
early frosts frequently do much damage to the corn, 
reducing the feeding value of the kernel as well as the 
vitality or life of the germ. 

Testing. — The seed may be tested at odd times dur- 
ing the winter months when there is plenty of free 
time on the farm. One method has been described in 
the directions for home work, but there are other 



92 



FARM PROJECTS 



methods which may be more convenient for some per- 
sons. If a warm temperature can be provided, the 
corn may be tested by placing the kernels between 
pieces of blotting paper which are kept moist. This 
method requires more attention than the others be- 




FiG. 22. High school boys testing seed corn. A convenient form of 

SEED corn rack 

cause the blotting paper dries out very rapidly unless 
it is covered with a wet cloth or placed between dinner 
plates. 

Another device commonly used is the ''rag doll." 
Heavy outing flannel cloth is cut into pieces about 
twenty inches wide and twenty-four inches long; then 
marked off in two-inch squares, and kernels placed in 
these squares. The sides of the cloth are turned in 
over the corn and rolled tightly from one end, thus 



TESTING SEED CORN 



93 



making a roll similar to a rag doll. The "doll" should 
then be soaked in warm water for at least ten hours and 
placed in a warm place to allow germination to go on. 




Courtesy of Ginn 6* Co. 

Fig. 23. Showing difference in germinating power of seed 

The "doll" retains or holds the heat given off by the 
growing seed and low temperatures do not affect the test 
unless the temperature should drop to the freezing point. 
Shelling Seed Corn. — After the corn has been tested 
and the bad ears discarded, it should be shelled, sacked, 



94 FARM PROJECTS 

and placed out of the reach of rats and mice. The 
kernels from the tips and butts are usually ill shaped 
and unfit for seed, not only because they are not likely 
to produce good strong plants, but because they will 
not pass through the openings in the edge drop planter. 
The tips and butts should be shelled off by hand and 
then the ears may be run through a hand sheller. Many 
farmers prefer to shell the corn by hand, thus making 
sure that no irregular kernels find their way into the 
seed sack. 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. If you found ears that would not germinate what reason 
would you give for this weakness ? Can you tell the exact cause 
of the weakness? 

2. Make a "rag doll" tester in the school, fill it with kernels of 
corn, and note the growth from day to day. Make drawings in 
your notebooks showing seedlings five days after the seed has been 
placed in the "doll." Observe the root hairs on the young roots. 
What is the purpose of these hairs? 

3. How many hills of corn are there in an acre if it is checked 
forty-two inches each way? 

4. If a normal yield in your locality is forty bushels per acre, 
how many bushels will be lost on your farm if ten per cent of the 
kernels fail to grow? How many bushels would be lost on the 
total corn area of the farms represented in the class? How much 
money loss would this be at the current price of corn ? How much 
time would have been required to test the corn for all the farms? 



XIV 
PLANT DISEASES 

Home Work 

Each boy will play the part of a doctor this week; 
and, if he can enlist the help of his father in this exer- 
cise, much good will result. The suggested exercise 
should become a farm practice. It is too much to ask 
a boy to do all the work, so it will be necessary to take 
the father into partnership. 

Two exercises may be performed : 

1. Treating oats for smut. 

2. Treating seed potatoes for scab. 
Directions. — Purchase two quarts of formaldehyde 

at the drug store. The seed oats should be piled in a 
heap on a clean floor of the granary or barn. Mix one 
pound of formaldehyde (40% solution) in 40 gallons of 
water and wet the oats thoroughly with this solution. 
One or two persons should turn the oats with a shovel 
while another sprinkles the solution from a sprinkling 
can. It will require about one gallon of solution for a 
bushel of oats. When the oats are wet, cover the heap 
with a horse blanket or other cover. This is necessary 
to keep the penetrating fumes in the oats. Allow to 
stand a few hours, in order that the evaporating formal- 

95 



96 FARM PROJECTS 

dehyde may get through all the grain. The oats may 
be kept covered over night. Spread the seed and allow 
to dry before placing in the seeder. Oats should not be 
put back into the same bin after they have been treated 
as they may become infected again. They may be 
placed in clean sacks or placed in a wagon bed to be 
taken to the field. 

The same solution may be used to treat seed potatoes 
for scab. Place the potatoes in a sack and put them in 
a tub of the solution for two or three hours. Then 
allow them to dry before planting. Instead of formal- 
dehyde one pint of corrosive sublimate in 30 gallons of 
water, may be used. 

If each boy will carry out these two exercises, hundreds 
of dollars may be saved in the two crops. The exercises 
are not difficult. The reason they are not practiced more 
widely is the fact that farmers just do not "get started." 

Describe the scab which is found on potatoes. Have 
you seen heads of oats affected with smut .? If so, what 
effect did the smut have.f* How does blight affect 
pear trees.? Can you name other plant diseases and 
tell what effect they have.? 

Facts to be Studied 

Damage by Disease. — Plants are living things just as 
animals are, and are subject to disease and destruction 
in the same way that animals are. Much grain is lost 
each year by disease, the estimated annual loss in the 



PLANT DISEASES 



97 



United States due to plant disease being more than a 
billion dollars. A disease which "broke out" in wheat 
fields in a few counties 
near St. Louis, Mis- 
souri, in 1919 de- 
stroyed more than a 
million dollars worth 
of wheat. 

Fungus Disease. — A 
type of plant disease 
commonly found 
among economic 
crops is the fungus. 
Oats smut is a typical 
fungus and may be 
described as an illus- 
tration. The smut 
may be said to be a 
plant growing upon a 
plant. It is true that 
the plants we call 
smut are so small that 
they can scarcely be 
seen with the naked 
eye except in bunches. 
Nevertheless, the tiny 
forms of plants have a minute root system and a slender 
stem. On the thread-like stem grows a little black ball 
which bears thousands of microscopic seeds or spores as 




Fig. 24. Germinating power of seed corn — 
murphysboro, illinois, high school. 



98 FARM PROJECTS 

they are called. Can you imagine a grain of oats 
covered with tiny plants all stealing the sap and food 
from the grain. It does not take long for the smut to 
devour or destroy completely the grain of oats. Stalks 
of oats Infected with smut often do not contain a single 
good grain; the smut has destroyed the grain just as 
mold softens and destroys a piece of bread. The roots 
of the tiny smut plants fasten themselves in the kernel 
of oats just as the roots of the tree grow in the soil. 

How Fungus Spreads. — Most diseases of plants are 
"catching." These tiny growths spread from stalk to 
stalk and even from field to field in much the same 
way that dandelions and milk weeds spread. The tiny 
spores are easily blown by the wind from place to place 
and wherever they lodge they become so numerous 
that they can soon destroy a field of oats. The author 
has counted stalks of oats infected with smut and found 
more than 50% of the stalks in a given area without 
any good grains of oats. 

The Treatment. — The treatment advised in the di- 
rections for home work is the same as disinfecting a 
house after sickness. The formaldehyde gas kills the 
tiny spores so that they will no longer grow and produce 
more smut. If the field is not already infected with the 
disease, the crop is not likely to be damaged. The spores 
may "live over" in the soil and because of this fact crop 
rotation should be practiced. This is advised particu- 
larly In growing potatoes where scab has been found, as 
the scab may live over for more than one year In the soil. 



PLANT DISEASES 99 

Other Kinds of Diseases. — Besides the fungus dis- 
eases, there are some others which are more nearly Hke 
the diseases to which people are subject. Some are 
caused by bacteria or *'germs" as they are sometimes 
called, pear blight being an example of such a disease. 
Sometimes plants just seem to be ''run down" and in 
such cases we say they have a constitutional disease. 
Preventives. — One important preventive is to sow 
seed from healthy plants. Some varieties of plants have 
been developed which resist disease more than others. 
A tomato has been developed which seems to resist one 
of the common tomato diseases. Some varieties of 
wheat resist rust and smut more than other varieties. 

If crops are changed from year to year, the disease is 
not likely to stay in the soil. People hesitate to move 
into houses where tubercular persons have lived because 
the germs of this disease are likely to be there. Just so, 
people should not plant potatoes in a field where scab has 
been found because the spores are still in the soil. 
Other diseases are: 

Stinking and loose smut of wheat. 

Rust and scab of wheat. 

Potato scab. 

Leaf rust and stem rust of oats. 

Pear blight. 

Apple blotch. 

Corn smut. 

Ear rots of corn. 

Apple scab. 



loo FARM PROJECTS 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. What is a plant disease? 

2. Describe a fungus growth or disease. 

3. Name ten diseases of plants. 

4. Give the method of controlling smut in oats. 

5. How does potato scab differ from smut? 

6. Write the "prescription" for curing these two diseases. 

7. To what extent do plant diseases destroy crops each year? 

8. What is formaldehyde? How does it affect the diseases 
mentioned ? 

9. How may fungus diseases be carried from one plant to 
another ? 

10. In one county, the county agricultural agent kept records as 
to the oats which were treated and those which were not treated. 
The oats which were treated for smut yielded six bushels more per 
acre than those untreated. The record was kept on 5,000 acres. 
If all seed planted on the 5,000 acres had been treated, what would 
have been the gain due to treatment? At 50 cents per bushel 
what would the farmers have gained for their labor in treating the 
oats for smut? 

11. Can you give examples from your community showing the 
value of treating seed for disease? 



XV 
PRUNING 

Home Work 

Old and New Canes. — Select a currant bush and a 
gooseberry bush in your home garden. Count the num- 
ber of canes or cane stems growing from the root crown. 
How many grew during the last season.? Name all the 
earmarks by which you can tell the old canes from the 
young ones. Count the buds on some canes of the 
last season's growth and compare them with the buds 
on one of the oldest canes in number and size. In prun- 
ing, mark each kind of cane so that you will be 
able to compare the fruit yields during the coming 
season. Compare some of the old canes found in the 
raspberry or blackberry bushes with the new ones 
which are to produce fruit the coming season and list 
the differences which you can see between the two kinds 
of canes. 

The Grapevine. — Make a study of a grapevine. On 
what parts of the vines do you find buds most abun- 
dant? Can you tell the newest shoots or canes from 
the oldest ones.f* Measure the longest grapevines you 
can find. Count the different years' growth, as nearly 
as possible, to determine the age of the vines. Each 



I02 



FARM PROJECTS 



year's growth Is marked by a curved joint where a 
"shoot" has grown from another cane. 

Apple Trees. — Observe apple trees to find the differ- 
ent shapes of tops. They range from the very round 




Fig. 25. A young apple tree 

BEFORE PRUNING. 



Fig. 26. Same tree after 

PRUNING. 



to the upright or peaked form. How far from the 
ground are the base limbs of the highest heads.? Of 
the lowest .? Does the trunk of the tree from the ground 
to the first limbs ever grow longer or do the first limbs 
always remain the same distance from the ground.? 



PRUNING 103 

Can you suggest reasons for your answer? What does 
your answer suggest about pruning a young tree? 

Select a small tree and ask your father or someone 
on the farm to help you prune it. Have your knife, 
shears, and saw sharp. Use a step-ladder to reach the 
limbs, as it is not desirable to climb on the limbs. Cut 
out all dead or diseased branches. Make all cuts close 
to the main trunk or branches and make the cuts 
smooth. If the limbs are large, cover the wound with 
paint to prevent decay and insect damage. Thin the 
top by cutting out crooked branches and branches that 
have grown across each other. Try to make the top 
of the tree look shapely by your work and cut out 
enough of the branches to allow the sunlight to reach the 
inner parts of the top. In cutting the ends of branches 
leave a bud just below the cut to start a new branch. 

Note the illustration showing how to prune a young 
tree. If there are no young trees on the farm, prune 
an old tree. This will require more work but it will be 
worth the effort, as better quality of fruit will probably 
result. 

Shrubs. — The class should prune the shrubs in the 
school yard. Ornamental shrubs may be pruned any 
time after flowering time, the usual time being early 
spring. The main object is to make them more shapely 
and to stimulate growth. Shrubs which are not pruned 
soon become rough and uneven in growth, making a 
less pleasing appearance than well pruned shrubs. The 
older branches should be cut out, keeping the younger 



104 



FARM PROJECTS 



growths from year to year. The size should be con- 
trolled to suit the surroundings. For instance, barberry 
about the porch or entrance should be kept below three 

feet in height. 
Each boy should 
prune the shrubs 
such as lilacs and 
honeysuckle grow- 
ing in the home 
yards. Perhaps 
more work is out- 
lined than one boy 
can do, but each 
should choose the 
piece of home 
work which needs 
most to be done. 



Facts to Be 
Studied 

What Is Prun- 
ing ? — P r u n i n g 
means trimming 
or cutting away some parts of a plant. Nature prunes 
the trees of the forest when she causes the wind and 
storm to break off limbs that are dead. Every boy has 
seen trees in the orchard or street that have had the 
knife and saw used on them until nothing is left but the 




Fig. 27. A twenty-five year old lilac bush 

WHICH HAS never BEEN PRUNED EXCEPT BY 

Nature. Note the mass of struggling young 

GROWTH. 



PRUNING 105 

trunks and stubs of the main branches. Such whole- 
sale cutting is usually not intelligent pruning, but a 
cutting back without a purposeful aim. There are 
those who say that pruning is unnecessary because 
Nature intends all growth for some good; but we must 
remember that the apple tree, if allowed to grow in 
the wild and natural surroundings of the forest, does 
not produce the large, juicy fruit which is so relished 
by man, but instead, produces a small sour product. 
The purpose of the fruit tree in bearing fruit is to re- 
produce the kind by scattering seed and not to produce 
food for man, and it is only when man cultivates the 
tree and directs its growth that good fruit can be 
produced. It is true that some delicious fruit, such 
as the blueberry, dewberry, and other similar fruits, 
may be found growing wild, but these are exceptions 
and they too can be improved by pruning and culti- 
vation. 

Why Prune? — The trees grow more branches from 
year to year and soon the inside branches are so shut 
in that the sunlight cannot reach them. When some 
of the branches are cut away, the others will get more 
food and sunlight and will thrive better. The branches 
thus cared for will produce better fruit than they would 
have produced if they had been crowded and shut away 
from the sunlight. Sometimes branches become dis- 
eased or are injured by a storm. If allowed to remain 
on the tree, such branches will spread disease and 
finally cause the death of the whole tree. It is neces- 



io6 FARM PROJECTS 

sary that they be cut off. Sometimes a man's hand is 
crushed in some piece of machinery or it becomes 
infected with blood poisoning, and the surgeon finds 
he cannot stop the poison or save the hand by medi- 
cine, so he cuts off the hand in order to save the hfe of 
the man. It is not a difficult task for boys to find the 
diseased portions of shrubs and trees about the home, 
and many trees and shrubs may be saved by cutting 
out diseased parts. 

Another object of pruning is to keep the shrubs and 
trees within certain limits of size and shape. Pruning 
for this purpose is practiced on the flowering shrubs 
and sometimes on fruit trees and shade trees. 

The fruit grower prunes regularly to increase the 
quality of fruit borne on his trees. There are several 
ways in which pruning aids fruit production. The 
tree is made more healthy and vigorous by cutting off 
the diseased and broken branches; more sunlight can 
reach the inner branches if the head has been thinned 
by pruning; not so much disease will be found in clean, 
open fruit trees as is found in the ones which are thickly 
branched; and the fruit will grow larger if not crowded. 
We know that the roots take up water and food from 
the soil and carry the materials up to the leaves where 
the food is made over and used in the growth of the 
tree. If some of the branches are cut off, there will be 
more food for the ones remaining and they will develop 
a more vigorous growth, thus producing a better quality 
of fruit. 



PRUNING 



107 



How to Make the Cut in Pruning. — Much depends 
upon the way a Hmb is cut. If it is chopped off or 
broken off, a ragged surface will be left and disease 
will affect it later. A "clean cut" on the finger is not 
so dangerous as a 
ragged and torn 
wound made by 
tearing the flesh, 
because there is 
more danger of in- 
fection in the latter 
case. The same 
is true of tree 
wounds. The cut 
should not only 
leave a smooth sur- 
face, but should be 
made close to the 
main stem or branch as shown in the illustration. 
Long stubs are liable to become harbors for insects and 
disease. 

Pruning Young Trees and Shrubs. — Directions have 
already been given for pruning trees as they are set. 
Young shrubs and trees should be pruned regularly 
during their early life, the pruning being particularly 
important at this time because on it depends the shape 
of the shrub or tree. Young fruit trees should be 
pruned so as to form a well-balanced head, beginning 
at the proper height from the ground. 





Fig. 28. Methods of cutting off branches: 
A. Correct way; B. Incorrect way 



io8 FARM PROJECTS 

Shrubs, such as the barberry, Hlac, and bridal wreath, 
are more beautiful and develop better if they are pruned 
and not allowed to grow as in the wild state. A more 
vigorous growth will be obtained if the young shrubs 
and trees are pruned severely. One of the authors 
planted a yard with shrubs. When he began to cut 
them back rather severely the owner objected, saying 
that she was sure the shrubs would die if cut so severely 
and that she could not bear to see such "merciless 
surgery. " He saw the garden each year for several years 
and the shrubs that had been properly cut back made 
an excellent initial growth and none died. But not so 
with the unpruned specimens; they became ragged and 
the growth was much less vigorous. Leaf growth is 
more luxurious on pruned trees and shrubs. 

Pruning Bush Fruits.— Blackberries are produced upon 
canes or branches that die as soon as the fruit is 
borne, a new set growing each year to bear fruit the 
following year. Raspberries and dewberries are similar 
in their habits. There are three main things to do in 
pruning such bush fruits as blackberries. First, the 
old or dead canes should be removed when they are 
through bearing fruit. This may be done by cutting 
off the dead canes at the ground or the crown of the 
roots, using ordinary pruning shears or a pruning 
knife. The second process is to pinch back the grow- 
ing shoot or cane which is to produce the fruit frequently 
during the growing season, pinching off the tips with 
the thumb and finger, or clipping them with a shears. 



PRUNING 



109 




Courtesy Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. 



Fig. 29. Gooseberry cane before pruning, 

SHOWING over-abundance OF GROWTH 



When the end is 

thus cut off, the 

cane stops its up- 
ward growth and 

begins to throw 

out branches 

along the side of 

the cane, which 

branches some- 
times grow so long 

that they too need 

pinching back. If 

careful attention 

is given to the berry patch during the growing season, 

the quality of fruit 
will be much im- 
proved and the 
work of harvest- 
ing will be greatly 
lessened. Third, 
some of the grow- 
ing shoots should 
be removed from 
the plant during 
the growing sea- 
son by cutting 
them off at the 

root crown. This process is important as berry bushes 

usually send up too many canes to produce a good 




Courtesy Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. 

Fig. 30. Same cane after pruning 



no FARM PROJECTS 

quality of fruit. From a half dozen to a dozen sturdy 
canes should be allowed to remain in each hill. Most 
of this pruning can be done easily by boys; in fact, 
boys can do the work to better advantage than can 
men because they are more nimble and can stoop to 
cut the canes with less effort than can grown men. 
One of the authors, when a boy, found the pinching 
back of an acre of blackberries a most interesting pro- 
cess. To be able to check longitudinal growth of the 
cane and to cause it to become a real bush by putting 
out the lateral branches is a most important as well as 
an interesting part of growing the fruits; and it can be 
done merely by pinching off the growing tip. When a 
person picks from forty to sixty quarts of blackberries 
or raspberries in a day he will appreciate the importance 
of having low, well-formed, well-branched canes which 
stand apart from others in the same hill. The canes 
should be about two feet high and thinned so that one 
will not interfere with the other. Raspberry vines or 
canes are inclined to grow beyond control if not pinched 
back or severely pruned. The long canes bend over 
and lie on the ground, causing the fruit to spoil, while 
if properly pruned, they remain upright as do black- 
berries. Sometimes a wire trellis or stake is used as a 
support for raspberries. 

Gooseberries and Currants. — Perhaps a large major- 
ity of the ''bushes" which are to be found in farmers' 
gardens are allowed to grow from year to year with 
very little attention, bearing fruit of such quantity and 



PRUNING III 

quality as they can under natural conditions. How- 
ever, a little attention to such plants as currants and 
gooseberries will be worth while. The woody stems 
or canes more than three years old should be cut out 
and the new growth should be kept thinned. Some 
new canes should be encouraged each year in order to 
keep a supply of young growth at all times. Any dis- 
eased wood or stems infested with insects should be 
burned. In fact, a good rule to follow in all pruning 
work is to burn all parts cut off, as they may become 
infected with disease while they lie on the ground, even 
though healthy when cut off. 

Grapes. — Since grape pruning is somewhat different 
from the pruning of the bush fruits a few suggestions 
for their care will be given. There is danger of allow- 
ing vines to produce too much vegetation; that is, 
leaf and stem growth which will reduce the amount of 
fruit. Farmers are likely to be more interested in 
having the grapevines cover an arbor for purposes of 
shade than they are in obtaining fruit production. 
The grapevines should not be expected to give us a 
good shade or arbor covering and at the same time 
produce the best quality of fruit. They require severe 
pruning. Many systems of pruning and training grapes 
are in use. These systems may be found illustrated in 
books on fruit growing. The main points or facts to be 
learned are similar in all systems. Grapes are produced 
on shoots which grow from buds on last year's growth. 
A cane which grows this year will develop buds in the 



112 



FARM PROJECTS 




Fig. 31. One method of pruning and training 
grapevines 



summer and these buds put out shoots next year, 
grapes being borne on the shoots. One of these shoots, 
the one nearest the last year's cane, should not be al- 
lowed to bear fruit. 
It is kept for the 
purpose of produc- 
ing shoots the fol- 
lowing year. All 
fruiting shoots ex- 
cept the ones saved 
to produce next 
year's shoots should 
be cut off at the end 
of the fruiting season. The shoot or cane which remains 
should then be cut back to the number of buds desired 
and trained to a wire trellis. A good vine may support 
a dozen or more canes, each bearing as many as fifteen 
to twenty buds. The illustration shows one method of 
cutting back the grape. 

Grapes should be pruned during the dormant 
period, that is, the period when the vines are resting. 
Most pruning is done in winter when the sap is not 
flowing. 

Summary. — We have said that pruning with the 
shears or knife is just a way of helping Nature to do her 
work in thinning the branches on a tree or shrub and 
in taking out the broken and diseased branches. Prun- 
ing gives ventilation and sunlight to the inner part of 
the tree head. It stimulates fruit production, and 



PRUNING 113 

wood production as well, depending upon the time when 
the work is done and the method used. In general the 
dormant, or sleeping period, of the plant's life is the 
best time to prune, although for some purposes summer 
pruning may be practiced. Methods of pruning should 
be adapted to the particular kinds of trees or shrubs 
which are to be pruned. The grape requires one 
method or type, the blackberry another. To train the 
plant to a certain form or size it is necessary to start as 
soon as the plant is set. Boys can be of great service 
on the farm by cooperating with their fathers in making 
every tree and shrub in the fruit garden do the best it 
can in the production of fruit for the table. It will be 
fun to clean out the old gooseberry bush and make it 
over into a new and thrifty bush which will produce 
better berries than it ever produced before. 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. What kinds of fruit trees and bush fruits which should be 
pruned have you on your farm? 

2. Describe the methods used in pruning the plants on your 
farm. 

3. How could you improve upon these methods? 

4. Bring a branch of an apple tree to school and show the class 
how to make the cut in removing branches. 

5. Why should young trees or shrubs be pruned soon after they 
are set ? 

6. Find out all the different methods of pruning used by farm- 
ers in your community. 

7. How can you tell wood one year old from older wood? 



114 FARM PROJECTS 

8. How does pruning aid in making the quality of fruit 
better ? 

9. Tell how you pruned a single tree, shrub, or bush. 

10. How does the method of pruning the grapevine differ from 
other types of pruning. Bring a part of a grapevine to class for 
illustrative pruning. 



XVI 
THE HOTBED 

Home Work 

How many farmers in your community use hotbeds? 
This question may be answered if a cooperative survey 
is carried on by the class. Very little time will be 
needed for this part of the study, the purpose being to 
determine what is the general practice in the community. 




Surface 



tj^ of So,/ 



Fig. 32. Cross-section of manure pit hotbed 

The main v/ork to be done at home is to make a small 
hotbed, or to help to construct a large hotbed if needed 
on the farm. Specific directions will be found in the 
next part of this chapter. The hotbed should be made 
as cheaply as possible, keeping in mind, of course, that 

IIS 



ii6 FARM PROJECTS 

it should be made sufficiently large and durable to meet 
the demands of the family garden this year. 

It will be a good plan for the class to build a small 
hotbed at the schoolhouse following the directions given 
by the teacher. Flowers for the school may be started, 
such as asters, salvia, snapdragons, and ornamental 
grass. If it is not desirable to plant flower beds on the 
school grounds, these plants may be reset in paper pots 
or strawberry boxes and taken home by the pupils. 

The first hotbed to be made at home may be made to 
fit an old window sash, which may be found on the farm. 

Seed should be planted in the bed soon after it 
becomes warm. 

Write a story for your language lesson telling how 
you made your hotbed. 

Facts to be Studied 

Purpose of Hotbed. — A hotbed is a bed of soil which 
is artificially heated. It is used as a place to start 
plants for the garden. In all central and northern re- 
gions there are many plants which require a longer 
season to reach maturity than the climate allows. 
Such plants should be started early and transplanted 
as soon as the weather permits. 

Kinds of Hotbeds. — There are several ways of heat- 
ing hotbeds, steam pipes sometimes being extended 
through the bed of soil where large hotbeds are needed 
and steam is available. The most common type of hotbed 



THE HOTBED 117 

is one heated by horse manure, which gives off heat when 
it ferments. There are two types of this kind of hotbed : 
one, which is built entirely on top of the ground, called a 
surface hotbed, and the pit hotbed in which the manure 
is placed in a pit dug in the ground. The latter is the 
best kind for us to build, especially in the colder climates. 
The pit, which should usually be about a foot deep, is 
filled with manure and the frame is set a little above the 
level of the ground in order to secure good drainage. 

Where to Place the Hotbed. — Every boy has at some 
time "visited" with the "gang" on the south side of 
the barn or shed and knows how much warmer it is on 
this side where the sun's heat is reflected than it is out 
in the open or on the north side. Since the purpose of 
the hotbed is to supply heat to the young seedlings, the 
bed should be placed on the south side of a building, a 
wall, or a high board fence. The place should be well 
drained and slope to the south. If natural drainage 
cannot be secured, a trench should be dug to allow the 
excess water to run away. 

The Pit. — The pit should be made at least a foot deep 
and should be made a little larger than the hotbed frame 
in order to secure heat at the edge of the soil bed. 
Sometimes the ground is frozen at the time when the 
hotbed should be made, and it is difficult to dig the pit. 
The freezing may be prevented by covering the place 
with horse manure to a depth of one or two feet, some 
time in January, or at least two weeks before you wish 
to make the hotbed. 



ii8 FARM PROJECTS 

The Frame. — The frame should be made of twelve- 
inch boards, boards two inches thick being best for 
this purpose. The frame should be set in the pit so 
that it has a pitch to the south of about an inch to the 
foot, and should be supported by a post or stake at 
each corner, otherwise it may settle out of shape when 
placed on the manure. 

The Sash. — The regular hotbed sash is made of small 
panes of glass, and is usually about 3 feet by 6 feet in 
size; but any sized sash may be used. 

The glass should be overlapped so as to drain the 
water off to the south. However, an ordinary window 
sash containing from four to eight panes can be used if 
not convenient to get a regular hotbed sash, if the par- 
titions are notched to allow the water to drain off. It 
is best to hinge the sash at the north end of the frame. 

Making the Bed. — Fill the pit with fresh, unfer- 
mented horse manure which should be well tramped in 
the pit. It is better to have the manure piled up a 
week or two before placing it in the pit, but care should 
be taken that it does not burn during this time. Ma- 
nure should be banked around the outside of the frame, 
to aid in retaining the heat. 

When the manure has been placed in the pit, about 
6 inches of fine, loose, mellow soil should be placed in 
the frame on the manure. It is difficult to get this soil 
when the ground is frozen and for this reason it is well 
to use soil which has been covered with manure for a 
week or two. When the soil has been placed in the 



THE HOTBED 119 

frame, the hotbed is finished. It should not be allovv^ed 
to become too dry during the next two weeks, while it 
is heating. 

When to Plant. — It is a mistake to plant seeds in the 
hotbed as soon as it is finished as the bed is likely to 
become too hot during the first week or two, but 
seeds may be planted as soon as the temperature be- 
comes regulated from 70° to 80° F. The bed should be 
ventilated, but should not be allowed to get too cold 
for seed germination. Plenty of fresh air and moisture 
should be supplied, as the young seedlings are beginning 
to grow. It is well to make daily observations of the 
temperature as the hotbed is warming up. 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. What is the purpose of the hotbed? The cold frame? 

2. Tell how to construct a pit hotbed. 

3. Record the highest temperature in your hotbed during the 
first week. 

4. What is the difference between the pit and surface types of 
hotbeds? 

5. Name five advantages of the hotbed. 

6. Find the cost of a hotbed 3 feet by 6 feet at local prices. 

I sash 3' X 6' Labor — 8 hours 

I pair hinges Lumber: 

I load manure 3 pieces i' x 1" x 6' 

4 stakes 2" x 4" x 2' 

7. What plants must be started in the hotbed in your com- 
munity? 

8. What other plants might be started in the hotbed with profit ? 



XVII 
TRANSPLANTING PLANTS 

Home Work 

The principles and processes of transplanting can 
be well illustrated in the transplanting of tomato 
plants. The home work in connection with this study 
should cover several weeks' time. Our object is 
to grow tomato plants until they are ready to be set 
in the garden, studying the reasons and principles 
underlying the processes used in connection with trans- 
planting. 

Choose the variety or kind which you will plant in 
the home garden and get the seed in January. Such 
early varieties as Bonnie Best and such later varieties 
as Stone, Ponderosa, and Grand Pacific give good 
results. 

The seeds maybe planted in a small box of fine, loose 
soil in the house or they may be planted in a hotbed. 
If planted in a house box, plenty of moisture should be 
supplied, and the box should be drained. Place the 
box in a warm light window. When the young seed- 
lings are from two to three inches high, they should be 
transplanted to two-inch flower pots. If flower pots 
are not available, small tin cans will answer the purpose 



TRANSPLANTING PLANTS 121 

if holes are punched in the cans to provide drainage. It 
is best not to transplant to larger pots at first. The 
tiny plants should be handled carefully in order not to 
break the roots. The stem is easily broken. Make a 
hole in the soil with a stick or pencil and drop the plant 
into it, packing the soil around it. 

When the roots have completely filled the two-inch 
pots, the plants should be transplanted to larger pots, 
strawberry boxes being very good substitutes for flower 
pots. By tapping the small two-inch pots on a hard 
surface, the plant will come out without breaking up 
the mass of roots, and if transplanted to larger pots 
in this condition, the plant continues its growth, not 
being retarded by the shock which would ordinarily 
occur in transplanting. The plants should not be kept 
too warm or they will become spindling. The best 
place for the larger pots or strawberry boxes is in a cold 
frame on the south side of a building where they may 
be protected from freezing weather. If there is likely 
to be much cold weather, the pots may be kept in the 
hotbed under glass. 

When the plants are almost ready to bloom, they may 
be transferred to the open garden, being transplanted 
as soon as there is no longer any danger from frosts. 
To transplant into the garden soil, make holes large 
enough to contain the entire root system and soil as it 
comes from the pot and set the plant a few inches deeper 
than it was in the pot. The plant should not wilt if 
properly set. 



122 FARM PROJECTS 

Facts to be Studied 

Necessity of Transplanting. — Transplanting is neces- 
sary in parts of the country where the growing season is 
too short to grow and mature the garden products 
needed. If the season is shorter than the length of 
time required for maturity, then the plants must be 
grown in hotbeds for a short time, before they are 
placed in the garden. In northern and central regions, 
such plants as cabbage, head lettuce, cauliflower, celery, 
tomatoes, eggplant, sweet potatoes, and peppers must 
be started under artificial conditions because the frost 
catches them before they mature if the seed is sown in 
the garden after the soil becomes warm. Time and ex- 
pense are required to grow plants and transplant them, 
but machines built for transplanting plants on a large 
scale have lessened both labor and cost. The hotbed has 
been described in detail in Chapter XVI, but it may 
be noted here that the hotbed should be made early 
enough to allow plenty of time for plants to develop, the 
particular time varying with the locality. Celery, egg- 
plant, and tomatoes require more time for development 
in the hotbed than cabbage, cauliflower, and lettuce. 

The methods of successive transplanting from one 
place to another have been described in the directions 
for home work. Most plants do not require the suc- 
cessive transfers that are recommended for tomatoes. 

Watering Plants. — We have already learned that 
plants take up water through the roots, and that the 



TRANSPLANTING PLANTS 123 

water enters the roots through the root hairs. When 
transplanting plants from the hotbed to open fields, it 
is often impossible to keep from injuring the root hairs, 
so the plant must grow new roots before it is able to at- 
tach itself to soil particles and to take in moisture in the 
regular way. The plant, however, adjusts itself very 
rapidly and within a few days' time the new root hairs 
may be seen growing if the plant is again pulled from the 
soil. In the meantime, the plant needs plenty of water to 
keep it from wilting, so when plants are being set by hand 
in the garden, water should be poured into the hole before 
the plant is set. It is a mistake to pour water on top of 
the soil about the plant for it makes the soil pack and 
evaporation goes on more rapidly. Sometimes, if the sun 
is very hot, it is advisable to cover the plants with paper 
or large leaves, such as may be obtained from rhubarb, in 
order to check excessive evaporation through the leaves. 
Potted plants do not need such precautionary care be- 
cause the roots are not disturbed when the plant is reset. 
What to Grow for the Flower Bed. — Many flower- 
ing plants can be grown most successfully if started in 
the hotbed. Every one admires the beautiful asters 
which bloom in late summer and fall. These plants 
should be started in February or March and trans- 
planted to little pots or to flats (shallow boxes filled 
with soil), but should not be transplanted to the open 
bed until warm weather. Salvia is another plant which 
grows through a long season. The blood red appear- 
ance which a bed of salvia takes on in the late summer 



124 FARM PROJECTS 

is enough reward to repay any boy or girl for growing 
and caring for the plants early in the season. The seeds 
are planted at the same time that aster seeds are planted 
and the plants are transplanted in the same way. 

Snapdragons do best if transplanted. They bloom 
in the summer and continue to bloom until late autumn 
if the plants are sturdy. Many other plants, including 
such house plants as the geranium, must be trans- 
planted to give the best results. The latter is started, 
however, not from seed, but from cuttings placed in 
small pots. 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. What is meant by transplanting.? 

2. Why is transplanting necessary.? Is it necessary in all 
localities .? Is it necessary for all plants in your locality? 

3. What are root hairs? Why are root hairs mentioned in 
connection with transplanting? 

4. State the general principles which you have learned in con- 
nection with transplanting. Give reasons for each step. 

5. Describe in detail just what you would do in watering a 
plant. Give reasons for these directions. 

6. How do plants take in water? 

7. How is water given oft? 

8. When should the various plants be started in the house or 
hotbed? Make up a planting table for your locality, showing 
when the various plants may be planted in the garden. 

9. Suppose you were growing head lettuce by starting the 
plants in the hotbed. Outline the things to be done in order to 
make the transplanting successful. 

10. How does the procedure followed with lettuce diff'er from 
that followed with tomatoes? 



XVIII 
THE HOME VEGETABLE GARDEN 

Home Work 

Each member of the class should arrange to have a 
small garden at home for which he is entirely respon- 
sible. Other home work may be done as suggested; 
but the small garden described in the following plan 
should be grown and accounts should be kept through 
the summer. Much pleasure may be found in planning, 
planting, and caring for such a garden which should be 
small so as to insure the best of care and good results. 
The dates suggested in the directions for planting are 
for the central section latitude about 40° and the dates 
should be changed to meet climatic conditions in your 
community. 

Arrange an account book to show the following 
data: 



egetable 



Date 
Planted 


First 

Plants 

Appeared 















First 

Plants 

Ready for 

Use 



Amount 
Harvested 



Total 
Value 



Remarks 



1^5 



126 FARM PROJECTS 

The Plan 
lo feet X JO feet 

1. Parsnips 

2. Parsnips 

3. Chard 

4. Lettuce 

5. Radishes 

6. Peas 

7 Peas 

8. Onions 

9. Onions 

10. Beets 

1 1 . Carrots 

12. Head Lettuce 

13. Head Lettuce 

14. Cabbage 

IS 

16. Cabbage 

17 

18. Beans 

19 

20. Beans 

21 

22. Beans 

23 

24. Tomatoes 

25 

26. Tomatoes 

27 

28. Tomatoes 

29 

30 



The garden should be at least as large as the one 
shown in the plan. The numbered rows are twelve 
inches apart, but rows 15, 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 27, 29, and 
30 should be left vacant and the space given to the next 
row. The rows of cabbages, beans, and tomatoes 



THE HOME VEGETABLE GARDEN 127 

should be set at least two feet apart. The beans may 
be drilled in the rows. The cabbages should be set 
eighteen inches apart in the row and the tomatoes 
should be set so that each plant will have about ten 
square feet. 

Planting Directions for Home Garden 

The Parsnip. — The parsnip is a root crop; that is, the 
root is the portion which is used for food. The seed 
should be sown in the garden about April 15th and as 
soon as the plants are large enough, they should be 
thinned out to about two or three inches in the row. 
They will then grow through the summer and finish 
their growth in late fall. Parsnips are thought to be 
better for table purposes after they have had a light 
freeze. They may be left in the soil until spring or may 
be taken up and laid away in the cellar or buried in a 
pit in the garden until they are wanted for the table. 

Chard.— Chard belongs to the beet family and should 
be planted at the same time that parsnips are. It pro- 
duces a luxuriant growth early and is ready for cooking 
as soon as the leaves are large enough to use. The 
stalk may be used in the same way as asparagus and 
the leaves as greens. It will make a new growth as 
soon as the leaves are cut, thus furnishing greens 
throughout the season. The seed should be drilled 
in the row and as soon as the plants are large enough 
they should be thinned out to three or four inches in 
the row. 



128 



FARM PROJECTS 







THE HOME VEGETABLE GARDEN 129 

Leaf Lettuce. — Leaf lettuce should be sown as early 
as the soil is ready to be worked in the spring. The 
seed should be sown rather thickly in the row and thin- 
ning may be done when the plants are large enough to 
use by pulling whole plants from the soil. Lettuce is 
a cool season crop; that is, it grows best in cool weather, 
becoming bitter in hot weather. 

Radishes. — Radishes belong to the cool season crops 
as does lettuce and should be sown at the same time 
lettuce is sown. Later sowings should be made at inter- 
vals of ten days to furnish fresh roots for a longer time, 
as they get pithy soon after maturing and all the plants 
of one sowing usually mature at about the same time. 

Peas. — Peas must have a cool season in which to 
develop so they should be drilled in rows as soon as the 
soil is ready to be worked. They require very little 
care other than weeding and keeping the ground loose 
to save the moisture. 

Onions. — The onion sets should be planted about two 
inches apart in the row as soon as possible after the 
ground becomes warm. Lettuce, radishes, peas, and 
onions may be set out on or about April ist in the 
central part of the United States. 

Beets and Carrots. — Beets and carrots, like parsnips, 
are root crops. The seed may be drilled in rows at the 
same time that the parsnips and chard are planted. 
They will be ready for use in the early part of the sum- 
mer and will not withstand frost as will the parsnips. 
Beets and carrots are best for table use when they are 



I30 FARM PROJECTS 

quite young and tender but they may be used at any 
time during their period of growth. 

Head Lettuce. — Head lettuce should be cared for in 
much the same way as early cabbage. The plants should 
be started early in March in the house or hotbed. It 
is better to grow the plants in the hotbed and transplant 
them to the cold frame so as to harden them before setting 
them in the soil. In the central part of the United States, 
they may be put into the soil as early as April loth. The 
plants should be set about twelve inches apart in the row. 
They must be grown in the cool season and should be 
grown quickly if they are to make large, tender heads. 

Cabbage. — Cabbage should be started in boxes and 
the plants may be set in the garden about April 15th. 
By that time they should be large, well-developed plants. 
The plants that have grown tall but have not developed 
a good root system may not withstand the shock of 
transplanting. When transplanting any variety of plant 
from hotbed or window box to the garden, it is impor- 
tant to have a good strong plant and well-prepared soil. 
Water should be put into the hole before the plant is set. 
There is little value and sometimes much damage to the 
plant when water is poured on the soil around the 
plant after transplanting. The plants must be watered 
from day to day for a few days after they are set in the 
garden, but the soil should be stirred around the plant 
after the water has gone into the soil. 

Beans. — Beans belong to the warm season crops and 
should be drilled in rows about the first week in May. 



THE HOME VEGETABLE GARDEN 131 

The young plants are not very hardy and will not with- 
stand the frosts that are likely to come as late as the 
first part of May. The soil should be very warm and 
moist in order to insure germination. The beans should 
be at least eight inches apart in the row. 

Tomatoes. — Tomatoes must be transplanted. They 
are very tender and must not be put into the soil until 
all danger of frost is past, unless they can be protected. 
The usual time for setting tomato plants in the central 
part of the United States is about the middle of May. 
The seed should be sown early in February if early 
fruit is desired but may be sown in boxes or in the hot- 
bed as late as the first of April. The plants should be 
transplanted first to small paper pots, two inches in 
diameter, and when the roots have filled the small pot 
the plants may be transplanted to four-inch pots. The 
plants cared for in this way will be ready to bloom by 
the time they are set in the garden. The lower 
branches may be pruned off but it does not pay in the 
small garden to prune the vines very heavily. 

Vegetables Varieties Amount of Seed 

FOR THE Garden Suggested (Approximate) 

Parsnips Hollow Crown One tenth ounce 

Chard LucuUus One tenth ounce 

Lettuce Black Seeded Simpson One fifth ounce 

Radishes Icicle and French Two ounces (for 

Breakfast several plantings) 

Peas Notts Excelsior One fourth pint 

Beets Blood Turnip One fifth ounce 

Carrots Chantenay One tenth ounce 

Head lettuce Wayahead, May King or Big Boston Twenty plants 

Cabbage Early Flat Dutch Twelve plants 

Beans Stringless Green Pot One pint 

Tomatoes Ponderosa, Earliana, Bonnie Best Eight plants 

Onions White Bottom One quart (depends on size) 



132 FARM PROJECTS 

Draw to scale a plan showing your home garden as 
it was planted last year. Draw the Improved plan. 
Help your father and mother in carrying out the new 
plan for the garden this year. 

Note to Teacher. — A contest may be arranged for the growing of home gardens 
according to the suggested plan and perhaps local patrons will be willing to ofter 
prizes. It is better to have all gardens planted according to one plan, even though 
some suggested vegetables may be new or unpopular at first. Garden shows should 
be arranged for the exhibition of the products. 

Facts to be Studied 
Why Have a Garden? — There are many reasons why 
every farmer should have a garden. More attention 
should be given to the growing of fresh vegetables for 
the table. Chief among the reasons are: 

1. Vegetables furnish healthful food. 

2. Fresher vegetables may be obtained from the home garden 
than from the grocery store. 

3. Vegetables from the garden help to reduce the high cost of 
living. 

4. A larger variety of vegetable food may be secured. 

5. A continuous supply of fresh vegetables may be had through- 
out the season. 

6. The garden may be made a source of "extra money" on the 
farm by specializing on a few vegetables for sale. 

The Garden Plan. — The garden should be planned 
as carefully as any other part of the farm work. A 
carefully designed plan will: 

1. Save labor at planting time. 

2. Conserve space. 

3. Provide for necessary cropping, 

4. Save labor in cultivation. 



THE HOME VEGETABLE GARDEN 133 

No exact plan can be given that will meet the needs of 
all farmers. The plan will depend on the tastes of the 
family, the size of the garden, and the section of the 
■ country. A suggested plan may be found in Circular 
No. 154 of the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station 
and in most books on gardening. 

Soil for Gardens. — The soil is a most important fac- 
tor in growing a garden. Since the value of many of 
the products depends upon their early maturity, the soil 
should be of such a nature as to promote early growth. 
A loose sandy soil dries out early in the spring and warms 
up early. The garden should have a south exposure and 
good drainage is a necessary factor in garden soils. 

Gardens should be plowed in the fall and covered 
with a light covering of well-rotted manure as fall plow- 
ing conserves moisture and causes the soil to dry out 
earlier in the spring. The soil should be worked as early 
in the spring as possible and finely pulverized. If the 
soil is sour, a dressing of slaked lime should be applied. 

The large farm garden should be planted in rows far 
enough apart to allow cultivation with horse-drawn cul- 
tivators, thus saving much time. Frequent tillage con- 
serves moisture and keeps down weeds. The hoe, rake, 
and hand cultivator should be used to supplement the 
larger cultivator in working between the vegetables in the 
rows. A five-fingered weeder is a most convenient tool 
for hand cultivation in the garden. The soil should be 
stirred continually during the season. The practice 
of allowing the weeds to grow up as soon as the crops 



134 FARM PROJECTS 

begin to mature is a bad one. Continued tillage con- 
serves moisture and keeps the soil in good physical 
condition and plant food is more available when the 
soil is in good condition. 

Harvesting Garden Crops. — Most vegetables are good 
for the table during a short period of time only. 
Peas, radishes, lettuce, sweet corn, beans, and many 
other vegetables must be harvested just at the time 
when they reach the stage of maturity when they are 
good for the table or they become woody or tough and 
are of little value for table use. It is best to cut all 
vegetables for the table early in the morning while the 
stems and foliage are full of water, making them crisp. 
Vegetables lose much of their freshness when they lie on 
the counter in the grocery store for any length of time. 

All garden vegetables that are to be kept during the 
winter should be harvested before frost except parsnips, 
salsify, and horse radish, which may be allowed to freeze. 

Storage. — Too little attention has been given to the 
storage of vegetables for winter use. As many vege- 
tables can be stored, the cost of providing the table 
with food during the winter can be materially lowered 
by proper kind of storage. Most vegetables which are 
cooked in preparing them for the table can be canned. 
The list includes string beans, beets, peas, corn, rhu- 
barb, greens, pumpkins, sweet potatoes, and tomatoes. 

Potatoes may be stored in cellars or in outdoor pits 
but should be stored where there is some moisture and 
a low temperature. Parsnips, carrots, and beets may 



THE HOME VEGETABLE GARDEN 135 

be stored in cool cellars, but should be covered with 
sand to prevent withering. Cabbage may be stored 
in pits or in cool cellars. The outside pit should be 
well drained and ventilated. The vegetables should 
be covered with straw or other dry material before they 
are covered with soil and a trench should be dug around 
the pit in order to secure good drainage. 

Onions should be stored in dry places with plenty of 
ventilation as they will soon begin to grow if stored in 
damp cellars. Sweet potatoes require a warm, dry 
atmosphere, as do squash and pumpkins, and may be 
stored in the attic near the chimney if the attic is warm. 
The storage of vegetables should be as much a part of 
the farmer's program as the planting of the garden. 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. List all the vegetable crops grown for food in the community. 

2. What vegetables are canned in your home.? Which ones 
are stored in other ways.? 

3. Tell how an outside pit has been made on your farm. Com- 
pare the different methods described in class. Which is best? 

4. What difficulties have you had in starting your garden.? 

5. Give five reasons for planning your garden. 

6. What plants must be transplanted from the hotbed.? 

7. Suggest methods of watering a small garden. 

8. Keep a record of current prices as suggested in the home 
work and determine the total value of products harvested from 
your garden. 

9. Compare the amounts of products harvested from the dif- 
ferent gardens and suggest reasons for these differences. 

10. What insects have you seen at work in the garden? 



XIX 
THE FLOWER 

Home Work 

Observe the visits of insects to the blossoms of fruit 
trees and to early flowers of other plants. Watch for 
the first appearance of flowers. What flowers bloom 
first in the spring in your locality.? What difl^erent 
colors have you seen in flowers.? Can you suggest a 
reason why the flowers are highly colored.? 

Tear a number of flowers apart and study the parts of 
the flower. Where is the yellow dust called pollen found ? 
How do insects carry this dust from flower to flower.? 

Tabulate your observations according to the follow- 
ing outline: 



Name 

OF 

Flower 



Date of 

First 

Appearance 



Number 

OF 

Sepals 



Number 

OF 

Petals 



Color 



Number 
of 

Stamens 



Number 

OF 

Pistils 



Tear a tulip apart and draw the different parts in 
your notebook. 

What becomes of the colored petals of the peach 
blossom after a few days.? Does your answer suggest 
a reason why the petals are colored.? 

What kinds of insects have you seen visiting flowers? 

136 



THE FLOWER 



137 



Facts to be Studied 

What Is a Flower? — All boys and girls are fond of 
beautiful flowers, yet none perhaps has ever asked the 
question, "What is a flower?" We can describe it, but 
it is not so easy to tell just what it is. It is a peculiar 
part of the plant and may be said to be the first stage 
of the fruit of the plant. By fruit we do not mean 
apples and such fruits only, but the ripened seed struc- 
tures of all plants such as corn, wheat, and nuts. The 
flower is that part of the plant which bears the parts 
which are con- 
cerned in seed pro- 
duction. 

Parts of the 
Flower. — If we ex- 
amine the flower 
from the outer- 
most parts to the 
innermost we find 
first of all a set 
of leaves usually 
green in color. 
These outermost 
leaves are called 
sepals. Next there is a crown of more delicate leaf-like 
structures, usually brilliantly colored, which are called 
petals. Growing just inside the crown of colored petals 
are a number of slender stem-like structures called 




Fig. 34. Flower of cherry, showing parts 



138 FARM PROJECTS 

stamens, which look Hke slender stems bearing a seed 
on the end. This seed-like growth is not a seed but 
an anther, and bears the dust-like pollen which is so 
familiar to all who have observed flowers. In the mid- 
dle of the flower grows the pistil in the form of a small 
tube. It is in the base of this pistil, in a pocket called 
the ovary, that the seeds of the plant begin their growth. 
Before these little seeds develop, the original cells 
present in the ovary must unite with pollen grains from 
the stamens. The insects help to carry these pollen 
grams from one flower to another. 

Sometimes a flower has only stamens or only pistils. 
If a flower has no stamens, the pollen must be brought 
from another flower either by the wind or insects before 
seed can develop. The corn is an example of a plant 
which has its pistils called the "silk" in one place and 
its stamens called the "tassel" in another place. The 
pollen must fall from the tassel to the silk before the 
grains of corn can be formed. A grain of corn is the 
resulting growth when a pollen grain finds its way down 
a hollow strand of corn-silk and there unites with a cell 
and begins to grow. 

Nectar. — On the end of the pistil is found a sweet 
sticky fluid called nectar. The honey bee uses this nec- 
tar to make honey, and other insects use it for food. 
The honey bee is also serving the plants in a peculiar 
way, for when it comes in contact with the pollen, it 
gathers some on its legs, since the bee's legs are covered 
with hairs, and as the bee flies from flower to flower, 



THE FLOWER 139 

gathering nectar, the pollen is distributed. Thus one 
bee may carry the pollen of a single flower to a dozen or 
more other flowers. If it were not for the insects, 
many flowers would not receive enough pollen to en- 
able them to produce seeds. The red clover, for in- 
stance, must be pollinated by a bumblebee or it will 
not produce seed. The pollen of the clover is enclosed 
in a bag-shaped flower and is not distributed except by 
the aid of the bumblebee as he seeks his nectar. Other 
insects seem to be unable to enter the clover flowers. 

Why Fruit and Seed Do Not Always Develop. — Some- 
times cold heavy rains come just when the pollen is 
ready to be distributed. The rains beat the pollen 
ofl^ and reduce the amount of fruit. Other factors such 
as frost may injure the pollen and decrease the amount 
of fruit. Sometimes the freeze comes just after the 
fruit begins to form and causes the young fruit to drop 
ofl^. This is often the case with pears. 

The flower begins to form within the bud almost a 
year before the blossom appears. In the apple, for 
instance, the buds in July will be found to contain 
young flowers which will burst forth the next spring. 
Since the flowers must withstand all the weather con- 
ditions of the winter months, it is little wonder that 
many of them are killed by the freezing weather. 

Problems and Review Exercises 

I. Name the first ten flowers which bloom in the spring in your 
section. 



I40 FARM PROJECTS 

2. What fruit trees bloom first in the spring? Will fruit 
trees which bloom necessarily bear fruit? Give reasons for your 
answer. 

3. How much clover seed was produced in your community 
last year? What is the value of the seed at current prices? The 
answer is the economic value of the bumblebee to the farmers in 
the community. Where have you found bumblebees' nests? 

4. What insects other than the bumblebee have you seen visit- 
ing the blossoms of fruit trees? 

5. Write a composition on one of the following subjects: 

The Bumblebee and Clover Blossoms 

How the Flower Produces Seed 

The Most Beautiful Flower in My Garden 



XX 

TREES 

Home Work 

Two exercises should be carried out at home in con- 
nection with this study. The first one we shall call an 
''Observation Exercise"; the second one, "Planting a 
Iree. 

Observe the trees on your way to school and make 
a list of all those which you can name. Gather leaves 
from those you cannot name and take them to school 
to get help from some other member of the class 
or from the teacher. Keep an eye open for the birds, 
taking particular notice of the trees or shrubs which 
seem to be favorites with the birds. Decide upon 
some one distinguishing mark which will help you 
to recognize each kind of tree. Count the rings on 
a stump where a tree has been recently cut down. 
Each ring represents a year's growth. What was 
the age of the tree? Watch for the first coloring 
of leaves in the fall. How many colors can you 
find on a single tree.? Find answers to the following 
questions: 

I. How many different kinds of trees can you find on your way 
to school, including those on your home grounds? 

141 



142 FARM PROJECTS 

2. What is the distinguishing mark by which you can recognize 
the following trees: — oak,.niaple, elm, ash, catalpa, mulberry, wild 
cherry, sycamore, willow, tulip tree? 

3. From what trees or shrubs can you make whistles? At 
what time of year can you make them most easily? Can you sug- 
gest a reason for this? 

4. Where are the taller trees found, in the woods or in the open 
pasture? Can you tell why this is true? 

5. What will happen to the young tree after replanting if the 
branches are not pruned? 

6. How much time is required to take up a young tree in the 
woods and reset it in the home yard? Can you suggest reasons 
why boys and girls do not seek to improve the home surroundings 
more often than they do? 

7. What is your favorite poem about trees? A poem should be 
memorized. 

8. What is meant by A tree remains dormant through the zvinter? 

Planting a Tree. — There is usually a spot in the 
farmyard that would be more beautiful and might be 
more valuable if a tree were planted there. Our pur- 
pose in planting a tree or a number of trees is to obtain 
shade or fruit, or perhaps both. If a fruit tree is 
desired, the teacher should aid the pupils in obtaining 
good specimens from a reliable nursery or perhaps 
some farmer in the community will be willing to fur- 
nish some young fruit trees for this purpose. Select 
trees of a desirable variety. If an elm or maple or 
other shade tree is desired, it may usually be obtained 
from the woods. Go into the woods and select a good 
specimen which is not larger than you can easily carry, 
and with a sharp spade dig around the tree, keeping at 



TREES 



143 




Fig. 35. A splendid monument 



Courtesy of American Forestry. 



144 FARM PROJECTS 

least two feet away from its base. Take up as many- 
roots as possible and be careful to keep the roots moist 
as they will soon die if allowed to become dry. Select 
a spot where shade is needed. The tree should be 
placed far enough away from the house or barn so that 
it will not have to be cut away when it matures. Prune 
the roots so that there are no ragged ends left. This 
will cause the roots to fit down more closely when the 
tree is set in the hole and may prevent decay. Dig a 
hole large enough to set the entire root system without 
crowding the roots, and make sure that there is plenty 
of good fine soil with which to pack the roots firmly. 
Now set the tree in place and pack fine soil about the 
roots. The tree should be set a little deeper than it was 
in the woods. 

After the tree is set, prune the top severely, leaving 
only the main branches. If this is not done, the tree 
will not be able to draw enough moisture through its 
limited root system and will die. 

Facts to be Studied 

Value of Trees. — Every boy and girl knows the 
value of a good shade tree, for it not only provides a 
resting place for man and beast away from the hot 
summer sun, but it greatly enhances the beauty of the 
home surroundings. Fruit trees furnish both shade 
and fruit, and can be easily grown, yet many farmers 
buy fruit each year to can or for other use. In most 



TREES 145 

instances a plentiful supply of good fruit could be had 
by planting a few trees about the premises. 

The forest furnishes the material for our houses, our 
wagons, our furniture, and for many other necessities 
which could not be made from other material. Boys 
and girls should help to increase the number of trees in 
the community. No greater monument can be built. 
Wouldn't you like to have some one say a quarter of a 
century hence that you had planted the beautiful shade 
tree on the school grounds or in the home yard .? 

When to Plant. — Trees may be planted in the spring 
or in the fall; but, if planted in the spring, they should 
be set early before the hot weather begins. An ad- 
vantage of fall setting is that the trees become set in 
the soil and are ready to start new growth early in 
the spring. Usually an arbor day is designated by 
state officials and the school should give this day to 
tree planting. The day's program in school may be 
upon the subject of "Trees and Their Value," and the 
pupils may take a part of the day to plant some trees 
on the school ground as suggested in the chapter on 
"Beautifying the School Yard." 

Water Required. — ^Trees like other plants require 
much water, an apple tree of medium size drinking as 
much as a barrel of water per day. The tree takes up 
a part of its food in solution from the soil. The 
growing tree seems to balance its growth so that the 
root system will take in enough water to supply the 
branches with moisture in order to keep them from 



146 FARM PROJECTS 

wilting. Water is constantly being evaporated from 
the leaves so that there is a constant movement of 
water through all parts of the tree. This is the reason 
it was suggested that you should prune the branches 
of the tree which was newly set. Many of the roots 
were necessarily lost when the tree was taken up and 
if the tree were reset with all its branches remaining 
as they were, the root system could not drink in enough 
water to supply the branches and keep them from 
wilting. 

Trees for Fence Posts. — Although the iron fence 
post and the concrete post have come into common 
usage, there will always be need for wood posts. Some 
farmers plant rows of trees such as the catalpa or osage 
orange, commonly known as " hedge, " along fence rows, 
expecting to use them later as posts. Others plant 
forest plantations with these trees and allow them to 
grow into post material. The cedar and white oak 
of the forest make excellent fence posts. It will be 
interesting to observe the kind of wood used for posts 
in your community. Try to determine the relative 
lasting qualities of the different kinds of fence posts by 
asking farmers who have used different kinds. Every 
farm should have a place for a small plantation of trees. 

Adaptation to Climate and Soil. — Trees like other 
plants adapt themselves to surrounding conditions, 
each section of the country having typical trees. Some 
trees require much water and thus are found growing 
in humid areas while others are able to grow with very 



TREES 147 

little water and may be found in the dry areas. Differ- 
ences in the root systems and leafing habits make it 
possible for trees to grow in different climates. Those 
with branching root systems and broad thin leaves 
require more humid climates than those which have a 
long tap root and spiny leaves. The oak trees, for 
instance, are found growing in humid climates, while 
the evergreens are found in cold dry climates. The 
latter are so called because they remain green through- 
out the winter. The oak tree, on the other hand, sheds 
its leaves each autumn. It is interesting to note that 
the leaves of the white oak, though they turn brown in 
color, rem.ain on the trees most of the winter. A study 
of your local community should tell you what trees are 
typical in your climate. 

Review Questions 

1. List as many products of trees in your community as you can. 

2. Give complete directions for planting a young tree. 

3. Why should the top be pruned when a tree is set? 

4. Name the trees most commonly found in your community. 

5. What trees are used most extensively for lumber.? 

6. How can you tell the age of a tree ? 

7. Give the advantages of planting trees in the fall. 

8. What kinds of trees are used for fence posts in your locality.? 

9. What is meant by a "humid climate"? 

10. Survey your home lot and determine the location and the 
kinds of trees you will set out. 

11. Decide if necessary on a spot to plant a tree or trees on the 
school lot. 



XXI 
LEGUMES 

Home Work 

The home work in this project should acquaint you 
with the different kinds of legumes growing in your 
locality. A survey of the farms represented by the 
class should be made, in order to find out the number 
of kinds of legumes grown on these farms. Individual 
plants of the legumes found in the community should 
be brought to school, pressed, and mounted on card- 
board for study. If an old alfalfa field is available, 
take up some of the plants. Be careful to preserve the 
tap root which is the long central root. This will 
require much digging, but it will be worth while as it 
illustrates the root system and the ability of the plant 
to reach far down into the soil for moisture. How 
long are the roots you have dugout of the soil.? Tear 
a clover head apart and count the single flowers in the 
head. How many do you find ? Do you find any tiny 
insects in the flowers.? Observe the bumblebee as he 
goes from clover blossom to clover blossom in search of 
nectar. How many clover heads do you think a bumble- 
bee will visit in a minute.? Have you seen other kinds 
of insects sucking nectar from the clover heads? 

148 



LEGUMES 149 

Tabulate the observations of the class as follows: 



Kind of Leg- 
ume Observed 



Color of 
Flower 



Kind of Root 
System 



Height of 
Plant 



Acres in 
Community 



Facts to be Studied 

Value of Clover. — One frequently hears the state- 
ment that "clover is a good manure" which means that 
it is a good fertilizer for the soil. The importance of 
clover as an essential to good crops in the system of 
grain farming is being appreciated as it never has been 
before. Farmers realize that yields of good grain crops 
cannot be maintained without the use of clover or some 
other crop which is very closely related to clover. 

Clover Gathers Nitrogen. — Years ago men recognized 
the value of clover as a fertilizer, but they did not know 
just why it made the soil richer. We know now that 
it is because the clover has the power to transfer nitrogen 
from the air to the soil. It is on this food that the 
plants thrive. On the roots of the clover are found 
little pea-like structures called nodules, which are full 
of little bacteria. The bacteria take the nitrogen from 
the air and work it over into nitrogen compounds 
which the plant takes up as food. Nitrogen is one of 
the most important food elements which the plant 
needs and when it is found in large quantities in the soil 



I50 



FARM PROJECTS 



a bumper crop is produced. If there is little nitrogen 
in the soil, corn will have a sickly yellow color; while 

if there is much nitrogen 
present, the leaves will 
have a deep green color. 
What Is a Legume? — 
Nitrogen may be applied 
to the soil in the form of 
a commercial fertilizer, 
but this method is too 
expensive except on 
small farms where inten- 
sive farming is carried 
on. The air is made up 
of approximately four 
parts nitrogen and one 
part oxygen. Since there 
is such an abundance 
available, there is no 
need for any farmer to 
allow his crop to suffer 
for want of this impor- 
tant food element. Clover and plants closely related 
to clover take nitrogen from the air and when the plants 
are turned under, this nitrogen becomes available to 
other crops. The plants which have the power of taking 
nitrogen from the air are called legumes, from a Latin 
word, "legumen," which means to gather. There are 
many kinds of legumes, but only a few are commonly 



'-m 




^ i 




/ ,|'V\ 




{ 4 : 




•^c*'* 


. 


>- • 






v.. 


/ ■ / ; ^ 




§^V*- "'"■"■'••'• 


)^.ZM 



Courtesy Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. 

Fig. 36. Note the little balls or nod- 
ules ON THE roots. ThESE NODULES 
ARE FILLED WITH MICROSCOPIC BACTE- 
RIA WHICH AID THE PLANT IN GETTING 
FOOD FROM THE SOIL. 



LEGUMES 



i=ii 



known. The most important of the legumes are clover, 
alfalfa, cow peas, soy-beans, garden peas, and beans. 

Flowers of the Legume. — The legume family is very 
peculiar in many respects. We may see some of these 
peculiarities by examining closely the flower of the 
sweet pea or clover. The flower is called a closed 
flower; that is, the stamens and the pistil which are 
concerned in the production of the seed are all enclosed 
in a pocket-like structure which, in some instances such 
as in red clover, makes it impossible for the plant to 
produce seed without the aid of insects. The in- 
sects in flying from flower to flower distribute the 
pollen which they gather on their legs incidentally 
while searching for nectar in the flower. They carry 
this pollen to other flowers and help distribute it where 
it is needed to start seed growth. 

Legumes Like Sweet Soil. — Another peculiarity of 
the family is that the members do not care for an acid 
or sour soil. They must have a sweet soil in order to 
thrive properly. Much land which has been cropped 
for a long period of time has developed a sourness or 
acidity which checks the growth of clover and other 
legumes. Experience has proved that the application 
of lime to the soil will eliminate this sourness. The 
application of lime has increased the yield of clover 
from practically none to over three tons per acre. In 
many parts of the country, clover cannot be grown at 
all without the application of lime. In another chapter 
the use of limestone is discussed. 



152 FARM PROJECTS 

Legumes as Feed. — Farm boys know that clover hay, 
alfalfa, or cow-pea hay is a good feed for milk cows. 
These crops contain large amounts of nitrogen. Milk 
also contains much nitrogen. The cow can produce 
milk much more economically from the legumes than 
from such roughage as timothy, straw, and corn fodder 
because these hays do not contain much nitrogen. 
Legumes are excellent feed for growing live stock. 
Pigs thrive in clover pastures, and chickens lay well 
when they can get green clover or alfalfa to eat. 

Growing Clovers. — Red clover is one of the most 
common legumes grown in the United States. Its 
wide use as a hay and its use as a fertilizer makes it a 
very important economic crop. Alfalfa is another very 
valuable legume. Its culture will be discussed in a 
separate section. Clover is usually sown in the early 
spring, sometimes being sown in the wheat and some- 
times in the oats. Frequently if the season is not ideal 
for clover, the other crops grow so abundantly that the 
clover is smothered out. When clover is used in a 
rotation it is usually allowed to "stand over" one 
year after the year it is planted. At least one crop in 
four years should be turned under to help enrich the 
soil. 

Clover seed and seed of other legumes sell for high 
prices. We must think of the legumes as a family of 
plants differing from other plants in habit of growth, 
in earmarks of the plants, and in cultural methods 
required for their growth. 



LEGUMES 153 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. How does a legume differ from other plants? 

2. In what way is clover used as a fertilizer? 

3. On what kind of soil will clover fail to grow? 

4. What is nitrogen? 

5. How do the flowers of the legume diflPer from other flowers? 

6. What is the feeding value of legumes ? 

7. Name the common legumes. 

8. How is clover usually sown ? 

9. How many acres of alfalfa were grown in your community 
last year? of clover? of other legumes? 

10. Tell of the experience of your father or a neighbor in grow- 
ing legumes. 

11. At what time in the year is clover turned under in your 
locality? Can you suggest a reason for turning it under at this 
time? 

12. Does corn grow better after a crop of clover has been turned 
under the soil? Does clover help the cotton crop in the same 
way ? 



XXIT 
ALFALFA 

Home Work 

How many cuttings of alfalfa may be made in your 
community? Give the dates of these cuttings. What 
yields are obtained ? Compare the total yields of alfalfa 
per acre with the yield of other hays grown in your 
community. Study the method of harvesting the crop 
and compare it with the methods used in harvesting 
other crops, keeping in mind the labor required, time of 
year, curing, storing, and danger of loss. Can alfalfa 
be baled from the shock in your community or must 
it be stacked or put in the shed for some time before 
it is baled ^ 

Feed alfalfa together with other hays to cattle and 
horses. Which hay is relished most.^* Feed the dry 
hay to hogs and note the result. Feed other hays to 
the hogs. Will they eat timothy and clover.? 

Compare the market quotations on alfalfa with other 
hays. Such quotations may be found in any city papers. 
What is the local price per ton paid by buyers.? What 
margin does the city quotation allow the buyer.? What 
items of expense must be paid from this margin by the 
man who buys from the farmer and ships to the market? 

154 



ALFALFA 155 

Facts to be Studied 

History of Alfalfa. — Alfalfa has been grown for thou- 
sands of years, records of its growth showing that 
it was grown many hundreds of years before the birth 
of Christ. It has been grown in America more than a 
century but has not obtained the foothold which it 
deserves in this country. Nevertheless, the crop is 
rapidly assuming much larger proportions as compared 
with other crops. Farmers are beginning to appreciate 
its importance as a legume and particularly as a feed 
for young live stock and milk cows. 

At present most of the alfalfa grown in the United 
States is produced in the western states, for it is well 
adapted to the climate of this region. Its root system 
gives it a place also among the crops of the dry climates, 
as the long tap root can go to great depths for water. 
The rich soil of the corn-belt area is adapted to the 
growth of heavy crops of alfalfa, but the wet seasons 
which frequently come at harvest time, especially in 
the early summer, have limited the production to small 
areas. Farmers do not grow alfalfa on a large scale 
because of the difficulty of curing the hay during the 
wet seasons. As farmers become better equipped for the 
care of the crop, they will grow larger areas on the corn- 
belt farms. Alfalfa is being grown in many sections as 
a legume In rotation, often taking the place of clover. 

Adds Food to the Soil. — Alfalfa is one of the most 
effective food gatherers among the legumes. It Is able 



156 



FARM PROJECTS 




ALFALFA 157 

to take some of the nitrogen gas from the air and turn 
it into food for the growth of the plant. The roots 
have large numbers of the pealike structures called 
nodules, which means that the plant is well supplied 
with the little bacteria which gather nitrogen from the 
air. When the crop is plowed under, this nitrogen is 
added to the soil. The luxuriant growth of roots, stem, 
and leaves adds much humus or organic matter to the 
soil when plowed under. The crop is an excellent one 
to grow in rotation where corn is grown. 

No hay crop or forage crop will produce better re- 
sults when fed to growing live stock or to dairy cows 
for milk production than alfalfa. The necessary protein 
or muscle building material can be supplied much more 
cheaply in alfalfa than in bran or other more concen- 
trated feeds. Alfalfa is relished by live stock, especially 
cattle. Farmers feed alfalfa to horses with good results. 

The root system consists of a long tap root which 
reaches many feet into the soil, and a few smaller roots 
near the surface. It is stated that these tap roots have 
been found to reach fifty feet below the surface, along 
embankments. At any rate, it is safe to say that these 
roots penetrate to great depths in order to get water for 
the growth of the plant. The roots also gather mineral 
substances and bring them to the upper parts of the 
plant, thus enriching the surface soil. Alfalfa requires 
about one thousand times its own weight of water to 
complete the season's growth; that is, a thousand tons 
of water pass through the plants which make up a 



158 FARM PROJECTS 

ton of dry hay when harvested. However, an overflow 
will drown the crop very quickly, which means that the 
soil in humid climates must be well drained before it 
will grow alfalfa. 

A sandy loam is perhaps the best type of soil for 
growing alfalfa in most regions. A loose soil of this 
type allows the roots to penetrate to great depths and 
such a soil is usually well drained. The plant will not 
grow well in sour soil for the bacteria on the alfalfa 
roots do not thrive in sour soils and the plant is thus 
unable to take in nitrogen from the air. Soil which 
is sour may be made good for growing alfalfa and 
clover by the addition of limestone, the use of which 
is discussed elsewhere. Farmers should not waste 
time and seed trying to grow alfalfa on soil that is sour 
until plenty of limestone has been added. 

The microscopic bacteria which grow on the roots 
of alfalfa are very particular about their hosts or 
the plants upon which they grow. They grow upon 
the roots of alfalfa and sweet clover and are not likely 
to be found in new fields. Inasmuch as they are 
necessary to the best growth of alfalfa, farmers should 
make sure that the soil contains plenty of bacteria. 
There are several ways of introducing them into new 
fields, a common method being to secure a wagon load 
of soil from an old field of alfalfa or sweet clover and 
spread it over the new alfalfa field. It may seem as 
though a wagon load of ordinary soil would do very 
little good when spread over a field, but the bacteria 



ALFALFA 159 

grow very rapidly and spread widely when they are 
once started. 

Alfalfa is a very particular plant requiring an extra 
good seed bed. Weeds will crowd out the young 
plants if they are allowed to grow. The seed must not 
be sowed on thawing ground as clover seed is sowed in 
early spring, but should be sowed later in the spring or 
early in the fall. In the corn belt, both times are con- 
sidered good seeding dates, but more farmers seed in the 
fall. Whether the seed is sowed in the fall or spring, 
the soil should be cultivated for several weeks before 
seeding time to kill the weeds, to pulverize the soil, and 
to save moisture; this usually insures an ideal seed bed. 
Sometimes alfalfa is sowed with oats or some other 
"nurse crop," but there is danger of the young plants 
being smothered out by the more rapidly growing oats. 

Alfalfa should be harvested when the young shoots 
which are to make the next crop are about two inches 
high. These shoots grow out from the crown of the 
plant and can be easily seen. In most climates 
the plants are just beginning to bloom at the time 
the next growth starts. If the alfalfa is cut before the 
next growth starts, some time will be lost; that is, a full 
growth is not secured, and if the cutting is delayed until 
the next shoots are higher than two inches, the sickle 
will clip the tops of the shoots and check their growth. 

The hay should be raked with a side delivery rake 
within a few hours after it is cut. If allowed to remain 
in the swath longer than four hours on a good "curing" 



i6o FARM PROJECTS 

day, the leaves will become quite dry and will shatter 
off when the hay is raked. Much of the food value 
of the plant is contained in the leaves. The hay should 
be put into tall shocks made as small as possible in order 
to allow it to cure. It will cure best if allowed to remain 
in the shock for several days. Hay caps, which are 
canvas coverings for the shock of hay, are very useful 
in humid climates where rain is likely to interfere with 
the harvest. 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. On the community map, shade in green the portions which 
were planted in alfalfa during the present season. Make a survey 
of the land thus devoted to alfalfa to see whether the proper soil 
was used. Study the soil from the different plots devoted to alfalfa. 
Make recommendations for next year's crops. 

2. Determine the value of the crop in the community, esti- 
mating the yield per acre as the same as was grown on your father's 
farm or on some other farm where the yield is known. 

3. If your father is growing alfalfa, talk to him about the value 
of the crop and write a report of your talk with him. If he does 
not grow alfalfa, tell him what you have learned about the plant 
from the other members of the class. 

4. How many tons of alfalfa would be required to feed the cows 
on your father's farm during the winter months.? 

5. Test for acidity the soil on your farm, and in an alfalfa field. 
Take a small ball of soil from a depth of eight inches; wet it, and 
place a piece of blue litmus paper in it. If the paper turns pink, 
the soil is sour and needs some lime. The litmus paper can be 
secured from a drug store. 

6. Enumerate the things you have learned in this study which 
will help you in growing your alfalfa crop. 



XXTII 
GROWING COTTON 

Home Work 

Select seed from the field before the main crop is har- 
vested. Study individual plants and note differences. 

If possible visit a field of cotton during picking time. 
How is the cotton handled in the field? What does it 
cost to get the cotton picked.? Can you suggest any 
way of increasing the efficiency of the plan now being 
used } 

Go to a field that has been planted in cotton year 
after year without any crop rotation, and compare the 
crop with the crop on a field where crop rotation has 
been carefully practiced. 

What insects can you find in the cotton field that do 
damage to the crop? Each pupil should visit a gin 
and observe the methods of caring for the cotton. How 
is cotton baled ? What is the average weight of each 
of the bales of cotton? How are the bales handled? 
Find out the relative value of the seed and the fibre 
of cotton. Describe the method of preparing the soil for 
the cotton crop which is used in your community. Is 
any system of crop rotation used? If so, what crop is 
planted instead of cotton ? 

i6i 



i62 FARM PROJECTS 

Facts to be Studied 

Importance. — Cotton is one of the most important 
products of the farms of the United States. It requires 
a warm cHmate, so is found in the southern part of the 
United States. More cotton is grown in Texas than 
in any other state. Cotton is manufactured into 
clothing and other commodities. Cotton manufacture 
is perhaps the most important single industry related 
to the farm. 

The Plant. — Inasmuch as cotton growing is confined 
to the southern states it will be of interest to northern 
pupils to know something about the plant which pro- 
duces the material for so much of our clothing. The 
plant is related to the common hollyhock which is 
widely grown for its beautiful flowers. The leaves 
and flowers on the two plants are similar. The plants 
are rather woody and much branched. 

Fibre and Seed.— The fibre of cotton constitutes 
about one tenth of the weight of the plant while about 
one fifth of the weight is seed. The fibre is spun and 
woven into cloth and the seeds are used in the manu- 
facture of various by-products, such as feeds, oil, and 
fertilizer. Cottonseed meal is a ground feed used 
as a feed for cattle and some other animals. The meal 
is very rich in protein which makes it valuable as a part 
of the milk cow's daily ration. 

Growing Cotton. — Cotton is planted in the spring 
after the danger from frost is past. It is planted in 



GROWING COTTON 163 

rows much the same as corn, but it is necessary to 
plant an abundance of seed and thin the plants later 
because so many seeds do not germinate. The seed 
bed should be particularly well prepared in order to 
give the young plants a start. The plants are delicate 
and require frequent cultivation at first. The soil 
should be kept loose and free from weeds. 

Marketing. — The marketing of cotton is an expen- 
sive process. The locks of lint and seed are picked 
from the bolls by hand. One individual may pick as 
much as 500 pounds in a day though that amount 
is unusual and 200 pounds is a good day's work. 
Machine picking is not satisfactory because so much 
trash is picked with the cotton. From the field 
the cotton is hauled to the elevator where the seed is 
removed by the machine called a cotton gin. After 
the seed has been removed, the lint is baled for ship- 
ment to factories. The bales weigh about 500 pounds 
each. 

Summary. — There is little doubt that cotton will 
hold its high rank among farm crops in the United 
States because of the increased demand for the manu- 
factured products made from cotton. One of the 
most important movements in the south has been the 
changing from a one-crop system to a system of crop 
rotation, including the growth of legumes one year 
in the rotation. This system helps to keep up the 
fertility of the soil and to keep down the damage by 
insects. 



i64 FARM PROJECTS 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. What different kinds of cotton are produced in your com- 
munity? 

2. How is the seed separated from the Hnt? 

3. Tell how cotton is planted. 

4. What are the advantages of rotating crops? 

5. Describe the cotton plant. 

6. Can you find the date when the cotton gin was invented? 
Who invented it ? 

7. Find out what insects damage cotton in your community. 

8. What becomes of the stalks after the cotton is picked ? 



SECOND YEAR 



BETTER EGG PRODUCTION 



Home Work 

Culling the Flock. — One of the most important fac- 
tors in egg production is the selection of layers. Hens 
that do not lay for long 
periods of time are not 
profitable. Each pupil 
should secure the co- 
operation of some one at 
home and cull the home 
flock in order to weed out 
the non-producers. Cull- 
ing not only insures more 
egg production from your 
flock, but it is necessary 
to cull if one wishes to 
''breed up" a flock to 
higher production. 

When to Cull.— The 
culling should be done as 
early in the fall as possible. August and September are 
the best months. This exercise should be one of the 
first ones undertaken by the class in the fall. Of course 

167 




(C) Undjrwjjd &' Undcrwj.d, N . Y. 

Fig. 38. — "Lady Eglantine," a white 
leghorn hen which laid 3i4 eggs 

IN 365 DAYS 



i6S FARM PROJECTS 

whenever undesirable hens are found in the flock they 
should be culled out. Why cull in these months? 
When do the hens begin to molt? When are most of 
the eggs produced? 

Culling. — The flock should be "shut in" at night in 
rather close quarters so the hens can be easily caught. 
There should be two persons working together in culling 
the flock. One should catch the hens and hand them 
to the person who is doing the culling. The hens 
which are to be disposed of should be put into a coop 
at once. The best ones which are to be used in the 
breeding pen should be marked with leg bands. Cull 
in the daytime when there is good light in order to 
determine the color of beak, shank, and skin about 
the vent. 

Hens to Be Removed. — The sick hen should be re- 
moved first of all for she does not lay and she spreads 
disease. Sickness is indicated by a drooping attitude, 
bluish-colored comb, poor appetite, dull eyes, and 
general dullness. Sick hens should be killed unless 
the trouble seems to be temporary, in which case they 
should be separated from the flock and given special 
attention. 

All hens that are well along in the molt before 
September are likely to lay for short periods and 
should be removed from the flock. Retain the ones 
which do not begin to molt until late in the fall, for 
they will lay longer in the season and molt much more 
quickly. 



BETTER EGG PRODUCTION 169 

Hens which have deep yellow shanks and beaks at 
this time of year are not laying. This, of course, will 
not be an indication in the case of birds which have 
light-colored shanks naturally. 

The comb is another indication of a laying hen. 
When a hen is laying, the comb will be large, waxy, and 
red in color, and when laying ceases, the comb becomes 
shrunken, pale, and scaly. It is our purpose to cull 
out the non-layers at this season, so the comb will be 
an easy guide, but the other points should also be 
considered. 

When the hen is in a laying condition, the body fat 
is reduced. The pelvic bones, the ones which can be 
felt on either side of the vent, become thin and flexible 
in the laying season. They are far enough apart in 
most laying hens to admit the spread of from three to 
five fingers of a person's hand. If not more than two 
fingers can be placed between these bones, the hen 
is probably not laying. Laying hens are of course 
eating large quantities of food and consequently the 
abdomen is larger, looser, and more flabby than in the 
case of the non-laying hen. Hens with a smooth, 
contracted, neat appearance at this time are usually 
not laying and should be culled out. The skin cover- 
ing the abdomen is soft, moist, and pliable in laying 
hens. It loses its yellow color when the hen is laying, 
due to the loss of body fat at this time. Hens with 
tight, dry, hard, fatty vents should be discarded as 
non-layers. 



I70 FARM PROJECTS 

It will be unprofitable to keep hens that have stopped 
laying as early as August or September, so they should 
be sold from the farm. An exception should be made 
in the case of hens that have raised a flock and that 
have not yet begun to lay after their vacation. The 
general indications of laying ability in such hens should 
be used as an index to tell whether or not they should 
be sold from the flock. Old hens that seem to have 
outlived their usefulness should be sold from the flock. 

It is difficult, if not impossible, at this time to dis- 
cover the pullets which will prove to be poor layers. 
However, if some of the pullets are to be sold they 
should be picked carefully. Save the most thrifty 
ones which show early maturity, good color, and 
well-developed bodies. Pullets with long, snakelike 
heads are not desirable. 

The Breeding Pen. — Later in the fall the hens which 
lay longest and molt late should be separated and 
placed in a pen by themselves. The eggs from this 
pen should be used for hatching. The pullets of next 
year's flock are more apt to have good laying qualities 
if hatched from eggs produced by the long period layers. 
The pullets should be used the first year as layers and 
hatching eggs should be taken only from the hens which 
have shown their ability to produce. Most farmers 
do not take the time to make up the breeding pen as 
a separate part of the flock, but it will pay big returns 
to do so. Boys and girls can render a good service by 
helping their parents choose the hens for this pen. 



BETTER EGG PRODUCTION 



171 




Fig. 39. — This boy, fifteen years old, sold more than ^400 worth of eggs 

AND chickens FROM HIS BACK-YARD PLANT IN ONE YEAR. 



172 FARM PROJECTS 

Facts to be Studied 

The Farm Flock. — The production of food by main- 
taining farm flocks of poultry has been increasing very 
rapidly. The possibiHties, however, of such produc- 
tion have not been reaHzed or even approached. 
Ahiiost a bilHon dollars worth of products come from 
the poultry yards of the United States each year. Boys 
and girls can do much to lower the cost of living by 
helping to make the poultry yard more productive. 

Choosing a Breed. — There are many reasons why 
every farm should produce chickens of a single breed, 
but, as a matter of fact, most of the flocks found on the 
farms are not of a pure breed. The mongrel flock has been 
the cause of much failure in the poultry yards. There 
are many breeds of poultry and more than a hundred 
varieties so that any farmer may have his choice of 
breeds and varieties. The preference of the farmer and 
of his wife should be one of the important factors in 
choosing a breed. The poultry will get better care if 
it is the choice of the person caring for it. The Amer- 
ican breeds are very popular for farm flocks in the 
United States. They are good egg producers and at 
the same time produce a good quality and quantity 
of food in the form of meat. 

Breeding Up. — If one has a mongrel flock of chickens, 
there is a possibility of producing a better flock and of 
grading up the flock to a state which is practically 
*' full-blooded" or pure-bred. To grade up a flock, the 



BETTER EGG PRODUCTION 173 

best layers should be selected each year for the breeding 
pen and males from high-producing flocks should be 
used. Many farmers believe that all that is necessary 
to improve the flock is to introduce "new blood" from 
year to year. New blood alone will not improve the 
flock. The new blood should be obtained from a good 
strain of poultry or, in other words, from a high-pro- 
ducing flock. 

Selection of Birds. — Directions have been given for 
the culling of a flock for the purpose of selecting the 
layers. Care should be taken to keep up the vigor of 
the flock by discarding the weaker birds whenever 
found. The flock should be selected with a view to 
egg production, which depends upon the ability of the 
hens to eat food and to turn this food into eggs. There- 
fore, the hens should be selected with regard to their 
ability to eat and digest large quantities of food. 

Feeding the Flock. — Pupils should read the chapter 
on Feeding Ajiunals to learn the food nutrients and 
the purposes for which they are fed. The essentials 
of poultry feeding may be stated as follows: 

1. Allow the flock plenty of fresh, clean water at all times. It 
is surprising to note the amount of water which chickens will drink 
in warm weather. In cold weather the water should be warmed. 
It may be kept warm by keeping it in double-walled fountains 
which may be purchased on the market. 

2. Hens require grit for the purpose of grinding the food when 
it is taken into the gizzard, and oyster shell or limestone is neces- 
sary for the production of eggshell. The oyster shell, however, does 
not take the place of the grit which is necessary for grinding food. 



174 FARM PROJECTS 

3. Green food of some kind is necessary for the best production 
of eggs. Sprouted oats are good for winter food. The oats should 
be soaked for twenty-four hours, then placed in a pan in a layer 
about three inches deep. Keep in a moderately warm place, 
sprinkling with water from day to day as needed. The oats 
should be ready to feed in a week's time. Chopped alfalfa or 
clover is excellent green food for the flock and is more palatable 
when steamed or wet with hot water. 

4. Meat scraps or skim milk make good animal foods for egg 
production. Some kind of animal food is necessary for egg produc- 
tion. 

5. A mixture of corn, oats, and wheat makes a very desirable 
grain mixture for laying hens. The grain should be fed whole. 

6. Mashes are usually made by mixing bran, shorts, meat 
scraps, and other ground feeds. The mash may be fed dry in self- 
feeders, but is sometimes fed wet. There is more danger of con- 
tamination, however, if the mash is fed wet. 

7. A scratching place should be provided for the hens by keep- 
ing straw or other litter in a part of the house. The grain may be 
fed in this scratching place. 

Housing. — Plenty of sunshine and exercise are essen- 
tial to the best results in the poultry yard. The 
runway should be dry and protected from the cold 
weather. Winter eggs cannot be secured when hens 
must remain out in the cold most of the time. They 
should be provided with ample housing room and 
should be kept warm. Hens should begin laying early 
in the winter, if they are properly fed and housed. A 
house twenty feet square is large enough for fifty to 
seventy-five hens of the American breeds. The walls 
should be very carefully covered with building paper 



BETTER EGG PRODUCTION 175 

if there are cracks or knot holes, as draughts cause 
colds. Plenty of fresh air should be provided at all 
times. The south side of the house may have windows 
covered with cheese cloth during the winter, and at 
no time should the house be entirely closed. 

Eggs for Hatching. — The incubator is a common 
device on the farm now, its use having become almost 
universal in the United States. Eggs for the incubator 
should be carefully selected, those which are uniform 
in size and color, and which have good shape being best 
for hatching. Eggs for hatching should not be washed, 
as washing removes a fine outer coating which protects 
the pores in the shell. Use only clean fresh eggs. 
They should be gathered several times a day in cold 
weather to prevent chilling. If the eggs are to be kept 
for some time before they are given to the hen or 
placed in the incubator, they should be turned 
frequently. Make sure that eggs for hatching are 
taken from the best layers on the farm. This can 
be done only when the best layers are separated and 
placed in a pen away from the remainder of the flock. 
It is important to hatch chickens as early as possible 
in order to have early-matured pullets for winter laying. 
The cockerels bring the highest prices when they can 
be put on the early spring market as "frys" or 
"broilers." 

Care of Young Chicks. — A very important part of 
egg production on the farm is the proper care and 
feeding of the young chicks, as they are to grow into 



176 FARM PROJECTS 

the layers for the next year. All weaklings or cripples 
should be killed, for they will never develop into 
healthy, robust chickens and in many cases they spread 
disease among the remainder of the chicks. Much 
depends upon the first few days of a chick's life. No 
food should be given for the first thirty-six hours, as 
there is sufficient nourishment in the body of the newly 
hatched chick to nourish it for that length of time. 
If more food is eaten, the digestive tract is overladen 
and digestive disorders soon arise. If the chicks are 
hatched early, they should be kept in a well-ventilated 
brooder as long as necessary to protect them from the 
cold. Many farms are equipped with brooder houses 
containing brooder stoves. 

Little chicks should be fed a mash and grain which 
is rich in mineral matter and protein. No one ration 
is best for producing growth in young chicks. The 
grain usually consists of wheat and cracked corn. The 
mash should contain wheat bran, corn meal, beef scraps 
and bone meal, a large proportion of corn meal being 
desirable. No feed that is not clean and wholesome 
should be allowed in the feed troughs for young chicks, 
as much disease results from unsanitary methods in 
feeding. Skim milk is an excellent supplement to grain 
rations for chicks, but should be fed in amounts which 
the chicks will drink and should not be allowed to 
remain in the pans to become sour and contaminated. 

Pullets for Laying. — The pullets and cockerels should 
be separated wherever it is practicable to do so, as the 



BETTER EGG PRODUCTION 177 

cockerels get most of the feed when they are fed to- 
gether. On most farms, however, this is not practicable 
and in such cases the grain should be scattered over 
an area large enough to insure the pullets a good meal. 
It is important to give the pullets all the opportunity 
for growth possible as they are to be the winter lay- 
ers. A wide range is essential to the development 
of good pullets. 

To Produce Infertile Eggs. — The larger percentage 
of spoiled eggs which have spoiled somewhere along 
the line between the nest and the consumer are spoiled 
because they are fertile and thus contain a live, growing 
germ cell which will grow into a chick if given the proper 
temperature and time. Eggs which are infertile do 
not spoil so quickly. Infertile eggs may be produced 
through the summer by selling, killing, or confining the 
males as soon as the hatching season is over. Roosters 
in no way increase the egg supply and are useless in the 
flock after the hatching season has closed. 

Lice and Mites. — Chicken lice and mites cause the 
hens to stop laying. They sometimes weaken little 
chicks so much that they die. All roosts and houses 
should be whitewashed and sprayed with disinfectants. 
Sanitation is the best preventive, but if lice are found 
on the chickens, use blue ointment or lice powder until 
all lice are exterminated. 

Disease. — Badly diseased chickens should always 
be killed and burned to prevent further spread of the 
disease. Light colds and similar disorders can be cured. 



178 FARM PROJECTS 

Fresh air and sanitation are good preventives. The 
houses should be cleaned frequently and the yard must 
be kept clean. It is well to have greens growing in 
parts of the yard. Remove all rubbish and filth which 
might harbor germs. 

Write to your experiment station and ask for circulars 
on diseases of poultry. 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. What is meant by culling the flock? 

2. Let a member of the class bring a hen to school to illustrate 
the qualities or earmarks of a laying hen. Another member may 
bring a hen which illustrates the opposite type. 

3. How much time is required for culling a flock of fifty hens.? 

4. How many hens in your flock lay during the winter ? 

5. When do pullets begin to lay in your locality .? What would 
cause them to lay earlier in the fall.? 

6. Why should hens lose the yellow coloring from the beaks and 
shanks when they are laying.? 

7. Name rations that are fed for egg production on the farms 
of the class. 

8. What breeds are kept on these farms.? 

9. What is the average size of the farm flocks in the county? 
10. What provisions are you making for culling the home flock? 

Is it economical to cull the flock? 



II 



BREEDS OF POULTRY 



Home Work 

The purpose of this home work is to show you how 
you may become acquainted with the different breeds of 
poultry to be found in the school community. A sur- 
vey of several farms should be made by members of the 
class to determine the number of fowls belonging to 
each breed represented, and the number of cross-bred 
or mixed fowls in the district. Perhaps you can plan 
your survey in such a way that the entire district may 
be canvassed by the various members of the class. At 
the end of the week the results may be tabulated on 
an outline similar to the following: 



Breeds 


Number of Fowls 


Number of Farms 


Average Number 
PER Farm 



















































179 



i8o 



FARM PROJECTS 



Make a careful comparison of the breeds observed, 
noting the differences among the breeds and the pecu- 
liarities or particular markings of each breed. A 
suggested form for tabulating the results is as follows: 



Breed 


Variety 


Color 


Size 


Color of 
Egg 


Color ok 
Shank 


Comb 


Leghorn 
Langshan 


White 
Black 


White 
Black 


Small 
I arge 


White 
Pro^^ n 


Yellow 
Blue 


Single 
Single 



Make such observations and calculations as are 
necessary to answer the following questions: 

1. What is the earmark by which you can recognize the follow- 
ing breeds of poultry: — Barred Plymouth Rock? White Plym- 
outh Rock? White Wyandotte? White Leghorn? Buff Or- 
pington? Ancona? Black Langshan? Light Brahma? Rhode 
Island Red? (These are common breeds and may be found 
in most localities.) 

2. What is the difference in the average weight of five Plymouth 
Rock hens and five White Leghorn hens? 

3. How many points on the comb of the White Leghorn? 
(Count the points on several and average the number.) 

4. What is the difference between the comb of the Wyandotte 
and that of the Plymouth Rock? 

5. Does the color of the legs vary among individuals of any one 
breed? Do all breeds have legs of the same color? 

6. What is the color of the eggs produced by Leghorns? Of 
those produced by Plymouth Rocks? Langshans? Brahmas? 
Rhode Island Reds? 

7. What is the average weight of a dozen eggs produced on your 
farm? (Weigh several dozen and calculate the average weight.) 

8. What is the average production per hen on your farm for 
the month in which this study is made? 



BREEDS OF POULTRY 



i8i 



Facts to be Studied 

Groups of Chickens. — All chickens may be grouped 
according to the purpose for which they are kept. 
Some chickens are raised mainly for eggs, so they are 
grouped together and called the egg type, while others 
are raised for meat and are called the meat type. Such 
chickens as the 
Plymouth Rock 
are raised for both 
purposes and are 
called dual-pur- 
pose chickens. 
There are other 
types, such as the 
ornamental birds. 

These general 
types are divided 
into smaller 
groups. Most 
boys and girls are 
familiar with such 
terms as Leghorn, 
Plymouth Rock, 
Rhode Island 
Red. When the term Leghorn is mentioned, we think of 
a group of chickens in which the individuals are much 
alike. The birds of this name are small, slender, neat, 
active, have large combs, and lay white eggs. Such a 




© Underwood 6° Underwood, N. Y. 

Fig. 40. Barred Plymouth Rock rooster 



182 



FARM PROJECTS 



group of chickens is called a breed and the individuals 
belonging to a breed are very much alike in form, size, 
activity, and color of egg. But there are White Leg- 
horns and Brown 
Leghorns, which 
suggest that even 
the breed may 
be divided into 
groups. The 
groups which are 
distinguished by 
color are called 
varieties, thus, the 
White Leghorn 
is a variety with- 
in the Leghorn 
breed. Even 
smaller groups 
called subvarieties 
are characterized by such an earmark as the comb. 
There are rose-comb White Leghorns and single-comb 
White Leghorns. Thus the single-comb White Leghorn 
belongs to the egg type, Leghorn breed, white variety, 
and single-comb subvariety. 

There are more than 40 breeds of chickens and more 
than 125 varieties. Compare this number with the 
number of breeds and varieties which you find repre- 
sented in your community. Some attention will be 
given here to the most important breeds. 




^ L u ,.. J w UnJcnco,>d. \. V. 

Fig. 41. A White Wyandotte rooster which 

WON THIS PRIZE — A JAPANESE VASE 70O YEARS 
OLD AS THE FINEST COCK AT THE MaDISON 

Square Garden poultry show in New York 



BREEDS OF POULTRY 183 

The American Class. — There are twelve classes or 
large groups of chickens, but not all are of great eco- 
nomic importance. To the American boy or girl the 
American group or class is of great interest. This 
class includes six breeds: — Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, 
Java, Dominique, Buckeye, and Rhode Island Red, 
all belonging to the dual-purpose type of chicken. It 
is true, however, that egg production is the main 
purpose which farmers have in mind now when breeding 
poultry. The American breeds are good layers and at 
the same time produce a good quality of meat as a by- 
product as they are much heavier than the chickens 
of the real egg type. 

The Plymouth Rock is the most commonly known 
breed among this class. The breed was developed just 
after the Civil War. There are six varieties: — Barred, 
White, Buff, Silver Penciled, Partridge, and Colum- 
bian. They are good layers and mature quickly, the 
latter fact making them very desirable for meat 
purposes as they produce early "frys." Egg produc- 
tion is a characteristic which is developed not only 
by breed but by strains within a breed. The Plymouth 
Rocks stand high in egg production contests, for there 
have been egg strains developed to a very high degree 
of perfection within the breed. 

The Rhode Island Red is one of the newest breeds 
to be developed in this country. The members of 
this breed possess many very desirable qualities. The 
eggs are large, have a smooth, brown shell, and are 



1 84 



FARM PROJECTS 



uniform in size; the birds mature quickly and produce 
meat of an excellent quality. The red color is very 
beautiful. The males are darker in color, possessing 

a glossy dark red plum- 
age which is very desir- 
able from the point of 
view of the fancier. 
There are rose-comb and 
single-comb Rhode Is- 
land Reds and a white 
variety has also been de- 
veloped. 

The Mediterranean 
Class. — This group of 
chickens includes the 
Leghorn, Minorca, An- 
cona, Andalusian, and 
Spanish breeds, the most common being the Leghorn. 
The Leghorn lays large pure white eggs. The birds are 
much smaller than the American breeds, weighing less 
than five pounds, and are not so much in demand for 
meat purposes. They are very active, are good foragers, 
and are excellent producers of eggs. 

The Asiatic Class.— This class is known as the meat 
class, and includes the Langshan, Brahma, and Cochin 
breeds. Much attention is being given to breeding 
these chickens, particularly for meat purposes; but 
some strains of these breeds are excellent layers as well 
as good meat producers. These breeds are not so 




Fig. 42 



© Underwood 6° Underwood, N. Y. 

A Rhode Island Red 

COCKEREL 



BREEDS OF POULTRY 185 

active as those of other classes. The birds have feathered 
legs, which distinguish them from most other breeds. 

The English Class.— One breed of the English class 
of chickens, the Orpington, is very popular in this 
country. There are three important varieties, the Buff, 
the White, and the Black, all having single combs. 
They have a bluish-colored shank and the skin is light 
colored instead of being yellow as is that of the American 
class. The Orpingtons compare very favorably with 
the best American breeds in size and egg production. 

The other classes of chickens will not be discussed 
here as they are of less importance than those men- 
tioned. 

Review Exercises 

1. How are breeds distinguished? 

2. Name the American breeds and give some of their character- 
istics. 

3. Give the advantages of a dual-purpose breed. 

4. How does the Rhode Island Red differ from the Plymouth 
Rock ? 

5. List all the varieties of chickens which you have seen. 

6. Describe the different types of combs which you have seen. 

7. What breeds have rose combs only? 

8. What common breeds have single combs only ? 

9. How many different shades of color do you find on a Rhode 
Island Red male? 

10. Describe the Orpington. 

1 1. Give your reasons for keeping the breed or breeds which are 
kept on your farm at the present time. Do you think some 
other breed might be better? Why? 



in 

THE BABCOCK TEST 

Home Work 

A Babcock tester is necessary to complete the records 
called for in connection with this study. It will not be 
necessary for each pupil to have a tester but the school 
should possess one. If there is none in the school, 
perhaps one may be borrowed from someone near the 
school. If one is not available, take the samples to 
the nearest creamery to be tested. 

Perhaps each boy has a favorite among the cows 
owned by his father. The purpose of this work is to 
learn just what that cow is producing for the family. 
If time permits, a comparison between this cow and 
other cows may be made. Each pupil should learn to 
use the Babcock test. 

Weigh the milk each morning and evening at milking 
time and record the weights. Do the cows give more 
milk in the evening or morning.? Why.? Is the test 
the same at both milkings.? 

Mix the milk each time by pouring from one pail to 
another, then take a small sample of the milk and place 
in a wide-mouthed bottle. Label each bottle with the 
date and time of milking, and amount of milk, thus: — 

1 86 



THE BABCOCK TEST 187 

March 20, A. M.; 22 lb. How much time is required 
for this work on each occasion? 

Test each day's sample with the Babcock test. Does 
the test of the milk vary from day to day? Is the 
milk which is most yellow always the richest in fat? 

At the end of the week, tabulate the results in the 
following form: 

Cow Pupil's Name . 



Date Lb. Milk. % Fat Lb. Fat 



P.M. 
_A.M. 



Does the cow with the largest udder produce the 
largest amount of milk? What is the total amount 
of butter fat produced by all the cows on your farm 
in one day? 

What is the value at current prices of the butter fat 
produced by the cow you tested for one week? 

What is the average test ? (The average of the per- 
centages will not give the average test of the milk. 
Why.?) 

How much butter will she produce in a week? 
(Multiply the amount of fat by 1V6 to get the amount 
of butter.) 

Suggested supplementary home work: 

(a) Take a sample from each of the cows at home 
for one day; make a test of each sample. Compare 



1 88 FARM PROJECTS 

the percentage of butter fat in the milk produced by 
various cows. 

(b) Weigh the milk from each cow for one day and 
compare the amounts of butter fat produced and suggest 
reasons for this variation. What is the length of time 
since each cow freshened? Does the length of this 
period seem to have any effect upon the percentage of 
fat in the milk? 

Facts to be Studied 

What Is the Babcock Test? — The Babcock test is a 
test designed to determine the amount of butter fat in 
milk without having to go through the process of churn- 
ing all the milk and weighing the butter. Milk which 
is sold to the creamery is usually bought on the basis 
of the amount of butter fat in it. Thus the Babcock 
test has come into common usage for the purpose of 
testing milk. 

Sampling. — The fat content of a cow's milk varies 
from milking to milking and it is necessary in order to 
get an average test to test a number of milkings. A 
mixed sample may be made by placing a sample of each 
of a number of milkings in a pint Mason jar. The 
sample taken may be small, but should be proportionate 
to the amount of milk given. Thus, if the cow gives 
20 lb. of milk in the morning and 30 lb. of milk in the 
evening, the sample taken in the evening should be one 
and one-half times as large as that taken in the morning; 
two tablespoonfuls to each 10 lb. of milk is enough. 



THE BABCOCK TEST 189 

A mixed sample made up of several individual samples 
is called a "composite" sample. 

How Much Should Cows Produce? — The Babcock 
test is used in establishing official records of dairy cows 
and these records are reported by the breed associations. 
The world's record for one year's butter fat production 
is held by a registered pure-bred Holstein-Friesian, 
Bella Pontiac. The milk she produced in one year was 
tested by the Babcock test and found to contain 1,259 
lb. of butter fat. The importance of this test in build- 
ing up the dairy industry can scarcely be overestimated. 
By testing each cow's milk the farmer can learn which 
of his cows is doing the best work for him. He can 
find the cow or cows which are loafing and not paying 
for their board and by selling these cows and keeping 
the best ones for breeding purposes a farmer can breed 
up his herd to a high standard of production. A good 
standard to set up for cows in the dairy herd is 12,000 
lb. of milk each year. There are many herds which 
reach this standard. 

Testing Whole Milk 

University oj lilmois Experivient Station, 
Circular N umber ly^ 

''The sample to be tested should be at a temperature 
of 55° to 65° F. Mix the milk thoroughly by pouring 
it a number of times back and forth from the sample 
bottles into a clean vessel, taking care that all curd or 



190 



FARM PROJECTS 



17 6c 



Correct Methoef of 
/?eadinff on Who/e 
Mi/k Bott/es. 
/fead From A fo B. 



D 



undistributed lumps of cream are broken down. Im- 
mediately after mixing, draw the milk up above the 
mark on the pipette and hold it there by quickly placing 

the forefinger over 
the end of the stem; 
release the pressure 
of the finger slight- 
ly, allowing the 
milk to run down to 
the mark (this is 
easier to do if the 
finger is dry). Then 
transfer the pipette 
of milk to the test 
bottle, allowing the 
milk to flow slowly 
down the neck of 
the bottle and blow- 
ing the last drop 
into the bottle. The 
best results are ob- 
tained when the 
pipette and the test 
bottle are held at a 
slight angle during 
this transfer. 

*'Do not lose any of the milk sample in the process of 
mixing, measuring, or transferring, for the Babcock test is 
essentially quantitative and any loss affects its accuracy. 





Fig. 43. A. Measuring pipette; B. milk test 
bottle; C. acid measure; D. correct method 

OF READING ON WHOLE MILK BOTTLES. ReAD 

from a to B 



THE BABCOCK TEST 191 

"After transferring the milk to the test bottle, measure 
out 17.5 c.c. of commercial sulphuric acid into the small 
glass cylinder and pour into the test bottle. The acid 
should be about the same temperature as the milk. Hold 
the bottle in a slanting position and rotate it slowly so 
that the acid will run down the narrow neck and carry 
down any milk adhering to it. After the acid is added, 
mix the milk and acid with a rotary motion, being care- 
ful not to force any of the mixture into the neck of the 
bottle. Keep up the rotary motion until all the curd 
has been dissolved and the liquid is of dark brown color. 

''When the samples to be tested have been prepared, 
put the bottles in the tester, taking care to place them 
opposite each other so that they balance. Turn the 
crank the required number of turns per minute for 
five minutes; then, without removing, fill each of the 
bottles to its neck with hot water and whirl them again 
for two minutes. Add more hot water to each bottle 
until the neck is filled to within half an inch of the upper 
limit of the graduation marks; then whirl the bottles 
again for one minute. 

"If the foregoing instructions have been carefully 
followed, the neck of each bottle will contain a column 
of fat which should be of a clear yellow color. The test 
is now ready to read. 

"Reading the Test. — The extremes of the fat in the 
neck of the test bottle are the limits of the reading. 
The most accurate reading is made when the temper- 
ature of the contents of the bottle is 130° F. 



192 FARM PROJECTS 

"It will be noticed that the scale on the neck of the 
test bottle has ten large divisions, and that each of 
these is divided into five small divisions. Each of the 
ten large divisions represents i per cent, and each 
small division, 0.2 per cent. If the fat column covers 
three of the large spaces and three of the small ones, 
the reading is 3.6 per cent. This means that there 
are 3.6 pounds of butter fat in every one hundred 
pounds of the milk being tested. The use of a pair of 
dividers to measure the limits of the fat column will aid 
in securing greater accuracy in reading the test." 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. Of what benefit to the dairyman is the Babcock test? 

2. What precautions should be taken in sampling a cow's milk? 

3. How much time is required to sample and test the milk of 
twenty cows each day? Use your own record of time in calcu- 
lating this answer. 

4. What is the lowest test recorded by any member of the 
class? Describe the cow that produced the milk testing so low. 

5. What is the highest test recorded? Describe the cow. 

6. What breeds seem to produce the richest milk? The poor- 
est? 

7. Give the steps in operating the Babcock test. 

8. What precautions should be observed? 

9. What is the action of sulphuric acid on the fingers? 

10. If it costs ^120 to feed a cow for one year, how much butter 
fat at yo cents per pound must she produce to pay for her feed? 

11. Estimate the cost of feeding your best cow one year usin^ 
current prices of feed. Does she produce a profit over her feed ? 
What is the calf worth each year? 



THE BABCOCK TEST 193 

12. A cow gives 27 lb. of milk daily- The milk tests 4.2% 
butter fat. How much will the butter fat produced by this cow 
in one month bring at 62 cents per lb. ? 

13. The daily production of John's cow is 22 lb. of 5.2% milk. 
Henry's cow produces daily 38 lb. of 3.6% milk. What is the 
difference in the amount of butter produced by the two cows in one 
week ? 

14. How much cream testing 20% butter fat will John's cow 
produce in one day.? How much will Henry's cow produce.? 

15. How much cream testing 20% did Bell Pontiac produce in 
one year.? 

16. Ten Holstein heifers of a herd owned by the University of 
Illinois produced in one year an average of 13,54.2.2 lb. of milk, 
containing 466.141b. of butter fat. What did the milk test.? The 
dams of these heifers averaged in one year 9,533 lb. of milk, con- 
taining 300 lb. of butter fat. What was the test of this milk.? 
What is the difference in a year's income between the produce of the 
daughters and that of the dams if the product was sold at 62 cents 
per pound of butter fat? 



IV 
THE SILO 

Home Work 

The purpose of our study of silos is to become 
acquainted with the different types of silos and to learn 
the extent to which they are used. Each member of 
the class should report on the silos in his immediate 
locality. By this method facts may be secured about 
the whole school district. The results may be tabu- 
lated according to the following outline: 



Name of 
Farmer 


Type of 
Silo 


Estimated 
Value 


Diameter 


Height 


Remarks 


Good Points, 

Objections, 

Keeping 

Qualities, 

Etc. 









































































In the second column, the type of silo should be 
given upon the basis of material used in construction 
as brick, concrete, or wood. If the farmer has more 
than one silo, record his name twice and describe each 

194 



THE SILO 195 

silo. Under ''Remarks" include any remarks that you 
have heard the farmer make about the use of the silo. 
Perhaps it will be possible to get the opinion of the 
farmers in the district on the best kind of silo for the 
community. The table may be extended to include 
other items suggested in the questions such as the acre- 
age of crops required to fill the silo. 
Answer the following questions: 

1. How many silos are there in your community.? 

2. What per cent of the farms have silos? 

3. What crops are put into the silos and to what kind of live 
stock is the silage fed ? 

4. Obtain some opinions of farmers regarding the investment 
of money in a silo. Do those who have used silos beHeve that 
they are good investments? 

5. Approximately how many acres of corn are required to fill 
a silo 14' X 30'? Calculate from the data obtained from farmers. 

Facts to be Studied 

Use of the Silo. — Most boys and girls have seen 
cabbage cut and packed into a large jar to make sauer- 
kraut. The silo is the dairy cow's kraut jar. Corn 
and other crops are cut while they are green and 
packed into the silo where the finely cut material under- 
goes certain changes by fermentation. The silage, as 
the feed is called when it comes from the silo, is a very 
palatable feed and takes the place of the green feed 
which the cows and other live stock have been eating 
during the summer months. For this reason silage is 



196 FARM PROJECTS 

usually fed during the winter months when pasture is 
scarce, although it may be fed in summer with good 
results. 

Advantages of the Silo. — There is much discussion 
among farmers, as you may have already learned 
through your home observation, as to the advantages 
and disadvantages of the silo on the farm. The farmers 
who are in favor of the silo give these reasons for their 
opinion: 

1. The silo makes it possible to have green succulent feed all 
the year. 

2. There is less labor involved In handling corn through the 
silo than there is in other methods of harvesting and storing. 

3. The feed is in the barn during the winter when the weather 
sometimes makes it impossible to use shock fodder that has been 
left in the field or stacked out. 

4. Experiments have proved that an acre of corn put in the 
silo and fed to dairy cows will produce more milk than when 
harvested and fed in any other wa3^ 

5. Stock will eat a greater portion of the corn w^hen it is fed in 
the form of silage than when fed in any other form; hence, there 
is less waste through using a silo. 

6. More feed can be stored per unit of space in the silo than 
in the mow. 

7. Silage is an economical feed when fed for beef production. 

Types of Silos. — Most silos are cylindrical. Many 
different materials are used in the construction of the 
various types of silos, a common type being the stave 
or wood silo. In constructing this type of silo, wood 
staves are put together by the tongue and groove, and 



THE SILO 



197 



then held in place by iron hoops or bands, the con- 
struction being very similar to the making of a barrel. 
Another common type is the solid-wall, concrete silo, 
the walls being about six inches thick and heavily rein- 
forced with iron rods and netting. The tile or block 




Fig. 44. Students building a concrete silo 

silo, made of glazed tile or blocks, has come.into common 
usage. The block silo is made of concrete blocks such 
as are seen in the construction of foundations. Brick 
silos are also in use. 

It is difficult to say which is the best, and perhaps 
there is no best for all conditions. The peculiarities of 
local conditions, such as climate, should help to deter- 



198 



FARM PROJECTS 



mine the kind to build. Silage does not freeze as 
readily in silos having hollow walls as in those with 
solid concrete walls. Wood silos often blow down or 
burn, and if the silage is too green when it is put in, the 




Fig. 45. The dairy barn and silo were built by students attending Black- 
burn College, Carlinville, Illinois, where learning and earning go 
hand in hand. Education should not be separated from honest labor 

wood staves may rot off due to the juices collecting 
in the bottom of the silo. 

The pit silo, built below the surface of the ground 
like a cistern, is in common use in some sections. The 
silage must be lifted from it. It has advantages in ex- 
tremely cold climates and in countries where wind 



THE SILO 199 

storms are common. It costs less to construct a pit 
than to build a silo of the other type. 

Size of Silos. — The size of the silo needed on the farm 
varies with the number of animals to be fed. The silo 
should be small enough in diameter so that a layer of 
the silage may be fed from the entire area each day, 
otherwise the silage will spoil. A silo ten feet in diameter 
and thirty feet high will hold about fifty tons of silage 
and will require from four to five acres of corn to fill it. 
A herd of twelve cattle could be fed from November 
first to June first from this silo. A ton of silage occupies 
approximately fifty cubic feet, so the capacity of any 
silo may be figured. 

Filling the Silo. — Corn should be put into the silo 
when the dent first appears in the kernels. It should 
be just out of the "milk stage" because if corn is too 
dry when the silo is filled, it is likely to mold. Water 
is run into the silo as it is being filled if the corn is 
somewhat dry. The corn is cut in the field by hand or 
with a binder and is hauled at once to the silage cutter 
where it is cut or chopped very finely and blown into the 
silo. Usually one or two men stay in the silo to dis- 
tribute and tramp the silage. 

Feeding Silage. — Silage may be fed to any kind of 
stock; however, it is usually considered as a cattle 
feed. Dairy cows giving large quantities of milk will 
consume from twenty to forty pounds of silage per day 
besides a grain and hay ration. Silage is an economical 
roughage to feed to fattening cattle. In fact, some of 



200 FARM PROJECTS 

the best gains have been made by feeding a ration of 
corn silage, cottonseed meal, and alfalfa hay. There 
is no definite ration which is best for all animals as the 
needs of the individuals vary. It is not possible to say 
how much silage should be fed to a single cow without 
knowing the cow. The farmer should study his animals 
and feed them according to the needs of the individual 
rather than follow definite rules. 



Problems and Review Exercises 

1. What purpose does the silo serve on the farm? 

2. At what time of the year is silage usually fed ? Why ? 

3. What method is used in cutting corn for the silo in your 
community.? 

4. Name the advantages of a silo. 

5. How much silage will be required to feed a herd of twelve 
dairy cows from the time the pasture is gone in the fall until pas- 
ture is ready in the spring? 

6. To what kind of live stock may silage be fed? 

7. Distinguish between the different kinds of silos. 

8. Which kind would you build if you were a farmer? Give 
your reasons. 

9. What is a pit silo? 

10. In which kind of silo will silage freeze most easily? 

11. How many tons of silage will a silo 12 feet in diameter and 
36 feet high contain? (i ton occupies 50 cubic feet. I cubic 
foot weighs 40 lb.) 

12. How much silage will the largest silo in your community hold ? 

13. Each of two silos are 30 ft. high. One has a diameter one 
half as great as the other. What per cent of the capacity of the 
larger silo is the capacity of the smaller one? 



THE SILO 20I 

14. What will it cost to paint a wooden silo 10 ft. in diameter and 
30 ft. in height, at 75 cents per square yard.? 

15. How many cubic yards of concrete will be required to build 
a solid-wall silo having an inside diameter of 12 ft. and a height of 
36 ft., if the walls are 6 in. thick .? 



V 

MILK AND ITS CARE 

Home Work 

Compare the milk of the various cows on your farm 
as to color. Do the cows of the same breed give milk 
of the same color? Did the Babcock test show that 
the yellowest milk was richest in butter fat ? 

Set some fresh milk in a warm place, preferably in 
the kitchen where the temperature and humidity are 
high. How long is it before the milk begins to taste 
sour? How long before it becomes curded or clab- 
bered? Into another sample, put some of the dirt 
and litter of the barn — about a half spoonful in a quart 
of milk and compare the time required for souring with 
the time required by the clear fresh sample. Set 
another sample in a cold place, the ice-box or out-of- 
doors if the temperature is low. How long before it 
sours? Allow fresh milk to remain near onions, cabbage, 
rotting potatoes, or other foods having a strong odor. 
Does the milk absorb the odor to such a degree that 
its flavor is affected ? 

If you have a separator on the farm, examine it to 
answer these questions: How many discs in the bowl? 
Does the cream come out above or below the milk? 

202 



MILK AND ITS CARE 203 

If the crank is turned sixty revolutions per minute, how 
many revolutions does the bowl make? Try to sepa- 
rate cold milk. What effect does the temperature 
seem to have upon the efficiency of the separator? 
Can you suggest a reason for this effect? Try to 
discover the principle of separation of the cream from 
the skim milk. Does the cream go to the center of the 
bowl or to the outside when it revolves at great speed ? 
Why? Turn the cream screw one turn to the left and 
note the effect upon the amount of cream. Then turn 
the screw to the right and note the effect. Can you 
suggest a reason for this difference? Name all the 
makes of separators which you can find advertised 
in farm journals. Cut pictures from the advertisements 
and make up a cardboard page of pictures to be used in 
the class at school. What differences in the separators 
do you see in the pictures? 



Facts to be Studied 

Milk is a food product produced by mammals for 
their young. Most milk contains more than three 
fourths water. Milk from the various animals contains 
different proportions of fat and other solids. The 
milk of the whale is perhaps the richest in fat, contain- 
ing more than two fifths, about 43 per cent, fat, while 
the milk of the mare is very low in fat, containing only 
about I per cent or one one hundredth. We usually 
think of milk as the product of the cow because cow's 



204 FARM PROJECTS 

milk is used more extensively than the milk of other 
animals. The cow is an animal that has been bred for 
milk production. Goat's milk is used in European 
countries and to some extent in the United States, being 
used especially in the making of cheese. 

Composition of Milk. — One hundred pounds of cow's 
milk contains the following substances in the proportion 
given : 



Water 


87.2 lb. 


Fat 


3.9 lb. 


Protein 


3-S lb. 


Sugar 


4.7 lb. 


Ash 


.7 lb. 



100. o lb. 

The proteins include the casein and albumen of the 
milk; they form curd when rennet is put into the milk. 
The milk that we drink curds when it enters the 
stomach through the action of the juices of the stomach 
upon the proteins of milk. Cheese curd is made up 
of the solids of milk. 

Butter Fat. — The fat of the milk, called butter fat, 
is the fat from which butter is made. Good butter 
contains about 83 per cent of pure butter fat. Ordi- 
nary cream should contain about 20 per cent of fat, 
while double cream, or whipping cream, should contain 
from 35 per cent to 40 per cent butter fat. If you look 
at milk through a high-power microscope you can see 
the fat globules. Fat appears in tiny globules or balls 



MILK AND ITS CARE 205 

so small that millions of them could be placed side by 
side on the face of a silver dime. When cream is stirred 
rapidly, as in churning, these globules of fat unite to 
make larger grains of fat and finally butter is formed. 
The size of the fat globules varies. Jersey milk con- 
tains larger globules than Holstein milk. For this 
reason, cream will usually rise more quickly on Jersey 
milk than on Holstein milk. 

Separating Milk. — The fat is lighter than the water 
and other parts of the milk, and will come to the top 
when the milk is allowed to stand. When the thick 
layer on the milk is skimmed off, the product is called 
cream. The separator separates the fat from the other 
parts of the milk by a whirling motion. This can be 
illustrated by swinging a bucket of water over the head. 
The water remains in the bucket and if a mixture of 
liquids were placed in the pail, the heaviest would go to 
the bottom or outside. In the whirling separator 
bowl, the milk goes to the outside and the cream, being 
lighter, comes to the middle of the bowl and by means 
of discs the cream is separated from the milk. 

The cream separator is an important device to the 
farmer as he may separate the milk while it is fresh and 
warm, keeping the cream for the market, and feeding 
the skim milk to calves, pigs, or chickens. Skim milk 
is an excellent feed for growth production and when fed 
to hens is a good egg producer. The cream separator 
has made it possible for dairymen to sell fresh cream 
of almost any desired degree of richness to the consumer. 



2o6 FARM PROJECTS 

If a house-wife wishes fresh cream which contains 40 
per cent fat, she may get it, and if she wishes cream 
containing 20 per cent fat, she may get that. 

How Milk Sours. — Every boy and girl knows sour 
milk and its qualities. It is important to know some 
of the conditions which cause milk to sour. The sour- 
ing is brought about by the presence of little bacteria 
sometimes called germs, though not correctly. They 
are microscopic and can never be seen with the naked 
eye. These little bacteria are not little animals, 
as is sometimes thought, but are plants and repro- 
duce at such a rapid rate that within a very short 
time after they begin growth, millions of them are 
contained in a single spoonful of milk. These bacteria 
cause an acid to form in the milk which causes it to 
taste sour and to curd, causing the condition which we 
call "clabber." Put a little vinegar in a glass of milk 
and note the results. 

Milk will not sour unless bacteria are present and if 
we can do anything to check the growth of bacteria 
we can check the souring of the milk. Milk sours 
rapidly under the following conditions: 

1. In a warm temperature. Bacteria grow rapidly in warm 
temperatures, thus causing the milk to sour more quickly. 

2. In the presence of dirt. The bacteria are taken into the 
fresh milk by dust particles and dirt from the cow's body, the 
milker's clothing, or other sources. 

Rules for preventing the souring of milk or at least 
for retarding the souring process may be based upon a 



MILK AND ITS CARE 207 

knowledge of the above-mentioned facts and briefly 
stated as follows: 

1. Keep all the surroundings as clean as possible. The cow, 
the milker, and the milk utensils should be clean. The cow's 
udder should be washed and dried before milking. 

2. Milk with dry hands; otherwise, dirty water and milk will 
drop from the hands into the milk pail. 

3. Wash the milk pails in boiling water and allow them to 
remain in the strong sunlight as much as possible. 

4. Cool the milk as soon as possible after it is milked to check 
the growth of bacteria. The bacteria do not grow rapidly at tem- 
peratures as low as 40 to 50 degrees Fahrenheit. 

5. Keep the milk in a cool, clean place. 

6. If a cream separator is used, wash it thoroughly after each 
separation. 

7. Utensils which have been used to keep milk for use on the 
table should be washed in hot water and allowed to remain in the 
sun before they are used again. In places where certified milk is 
bottled, the utensils are sterilized with steam which insures that 
all bacteria are killed before the fresh milk is put into the bottles. 

Milk and Diseases. — Frequently epidemics such as 
the spread of typhoid fever are caused by milk. The 
bacteria which cause diseases of this kind live in milk 
when once they are started. The milk may contain 
tuberculosis bacteria which grow and continue to grow 
in the body after the milk is used. It is perhaps true 
that many diseases are spread by the use of impure 
milk. 

Pasteurized Milk. — Sometimes milk labeled "pas- 
teurized" is sold on the market which means that the 
milk has been heated in order to kill the bacteria 



2o8 FARM PROJECTS 

present. By pasteurizing milk in the large cities, the 
death rate among children has been reduced because 
the disease germs or bacteria present in the milk are 
killed by heating the milk to a high temperature. 

Evaporated Milk. — Since milk spoils very quickly, 
there is much loss due to souring and frequently much 
suffering from want of milk when delivery is held up, 
as in the case of strikes in the large cities. However, 
one can purchase canned milk which is milk from which 
a large proportion of the water has been removed. The 
water is evaporated from the milk in large steam tanks 
heated with steam pipes. The milk is then placed in 
cans and the cans are sealed and are heated to kill all 
bacteria. Condensed milk is thicker than evaporated 
milk and is usually sweetened with a sugar syrup to 
aid in preservation. 

The trade in evaporated and condensed milk is 
extensive, in 1919 the production in the United States 
being 2,000,000,000 pounds of canned milk. Much of 
this milk would have spoiled and would have been 
useless so far as family use was concerned if it had 
not been preserved in this way. Evaporated milk is 
convenient to use and serves many purposes in instances 
where fresh milk cannot be obtained, because it keeps 
well and can be shipped to distant points. 

Products of Milk. — While milk itself is one of the 
most complete and desirable foods, there are many 
products made from milk which should be considered. 
The most commonly used product is butter. Butter 



MILK AND ITS CARE 209 

should contain eighty-three pounds of pure butter fat 
in each one hundred pounds of butter, besides the milk 
curd, water, and salt. Enough butter is manufactured 
in the United States each year to supply each man, 
woman, and child in the country with one hundred 
pounds of butter. Much is exported to other countries. 
Cheese is an important product, the most important 
kinds of cheese made in the United States being Amer- 
ican Cheddar, Swiss, Brick, and Limburger. Cheese 
is made from whole milk and contains approximately one 
third water, one third fat, and one third curd and ash, 
the proportion varying in the different kinds of cheese. 

Other products — buttermilk, skim milk, whey, and 
drinks made from these are to be found on the market. 
Buttermilk and skim milk are excellent feeds for grow- 
ing hogs and chickens and are widely used as by- 
products of the dairy industry. 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. What differences have you observed in cows' milk? 

2. Outline the methods used in caring for milk on your farm. 

3. Describe the devices used for cooling milk in your com- 
munity. 

4. What disposition is made of the milk frx)m your farm ? 

5. What will 2,000 lb. of milk be worth at 14 cents per quart, 
allowing 2.18 lb. per quart.'' How long will it take the best cow 
on your farm to produce this amount of milk at her present rate of 
production .f" 

6. What would the milk mentioned above be worth at 64 cents 
per pound for the butter fat it contains if it tested 4.3%.^ 



2IO FARM PROJECTS 

7. Which will contain the larger amount of butter fat, 30 lb. of 
Jersey milk, testing 5.3% or 45 lb. of Holstein milk containing 

3.4%? 

8. How much butter containing 83% fat can be made from 120 
lb. of butter fat? 

9. How much milk testing 4% would be required to produce 
the above amount of butter fat? 

10. How much cream testing 20% fat could be made from the 
amount of milk required in the above instance? 

11. Allow milk to remain uncovered in a closed room or cellar 
where onions are kept. What happens? 

12. How much milk is produced daily on the farms represented 
in the class? If all the milk were sold on the basis of the butter 
fat it contained, what would be its value when butter fat is worth 
67 cents per pound? 

13. What facts have you learned in this lesson that you can 
apply immediately? Why? 

14. Under what conditions will the purchase of a cream separa- 
tor be economical? 

15. Will it pay better to sell the milk at ^3.40 per hundred 
pounds or at 70 cents per pound for the butter fat if the milk tests 
3.8% fat, thus saving the skim milk for house use and for feed? 



VI 

FEEDING ANIMALS 

Home Work 

In this study, you should consider some of the common 
methods used in feeding animals in your community. 

1. List the purposes for which animals are fed, such as to do 
work, to produce milk, meat, etc. Do farmers give the same 
kind of feed for each purpose.? 

2. Find out all you can about the amount of pasture required 
for each animal and estimate the value of pasture land. 

3. If you are feeding hogs, place some timothy, clover, and al- 
falfa hay in the feed lot at different times. Note which hay is eaten 
eagerly by the hogs. Does this suggest means of improving the 
feeding of hogs.? 

4. Many farmers feed corn as the chief grain for horses. Weigh 
the corn and other grain required for each horse for a few days 
and calculate the grain required for a year. Make a similar cal- 
culation for roughage required. 

5. Compare the amount of feed required by milk cows and by 
work horses. 

6. Do poultry eat as much feed per hundred pounds of live 
weight as other live stock .? Weigh the amount of feed given to the 
flock and estimate the weight of the flock. In this way find the 
amount of feed eaten for every 100 pounds of live weight. 

7. Compare the horses on different farms. Are they all in good 
condition.? What causes such differences as you may notice? 

211 



212 



FARM PROJECTS 



Sometimes we can find horses whose coats shine, while others have 
rough coats. If you can find such horses, try to learn the differ- 
ence In the feed which Is supplied. 

Estimate the total amount of the different feeds used 
on your farm in a year. Your father can help you to 
make a close estimate. When each pupil has made 
this estimate, the results should be tabulated as follows: 



Farm 


Kind of Feed 


Amount Fed 


Approximate Value 



































Total number of farms 

Total different kinds of feeds 

Total amount fed on all farms_ 
Total approximate value 



Facts to be Studied 

The Animal as a Factory. — As we study domestic 
animals, we will think of each animal as a factory. We 
may illustrate what we mean by using as an example, a 
plow factory. The plow factory must have plenty of 
room, plenty of machinery, and raw material enough 
to supply the workroom before it can turn out plows. 
If the factory is to make plows, it must first of all install 
efficient machinery; and, of course, the more room it 
has, and the better the building, the greater capacity there 



FEEDING ANIMALS 213 

will be for work. After the machinery is installed, it 
must then look to the mines for coal and iron and to 
the forest for wood from which to manufacture its 
finished product. Important changes go on within the 
manufacturing room and when the finished plow comes 
out, it does not resemble to any great degree the coal, 
the iron, or the wood, all of which were used in making 
it. Just so, the animal must obtain much raw material 
and work it over into products which do not resemble 
the raw material used. For instance, the cow takes 
raw material in the form of food into the digestive 
apparatus, works it over, sends it to the udder, which 
we may call the finishing room, and there manufactures 
milk and turns it out as a finished product. With this 
illustration in mind, we can better appreciate the 
necessity of taking many factors into consideration if 
we are to study properly the individual animal. 

Form and Purpose. — First of all, it is necessary that 
the individual animal be built for specific purposes, 
that is to say, the dairy cow should be built for the 
production of milk, while the beef animal should be 
entirely difi^erent in form because it is not the specific 
purpose of this animal to produce milk, but to produce 
meat. The race horse is quite different in form from 
the heavy draft horse. This is necessary because the 
work done by the two horses is quite different. 

We will suppose that each pupil in the class takes 
for his problem the management of one of these animals 
or factories we have talked about. It is evident that 



214 



FARM PROJECTS 




FEEDING ANIMALS 215 

he should choose a factory that is well built and is 
shaped for its particular purpose. 

Capacity.^The next factor which must be considered 
is that of capacity. This is a factor which makes for 
milk production. If the cow has not the capacity for 
large consumption of food, she will fail to turn out 
enough milk to make her a profitable factory. Capac- 
ity for food consumption is generally indicated in the 
animal by the open face, broad muzzle, or mouth, and 
especially by her large barrel capacity, the barrel being 
that part between the front and rear quarters. It is 
evident, then, that in order to get the best results, each 
boy must select an animal which has a capacity great 
enough to consume a large quantity of food. 

Quality. — One other fact should be noted: ability 
to consume food is not always indicated by size. Thus 
the engine does not necessarily work most efficiently 
and most economically because it is large, for a smaller 
engine may consume less fuel yet work with greater 
efficiency than the large one. Quality is another charac- 
teristic which must be considered. The automobile 
engine is smaller but runs much faster and more 
smoothly than the tractor because it is of better quality. 

Production. — To continue our illustrations, the dairy 
cow might be built for dairy purposes and might have 
a large capacity for food consumption and yet be so 
limited in her udder capacity that the maximum milk 
production would not be sufficient to make her profit- 
able. This last factor we may call capacity for pro- 



2i6 FARM PROJECTS 

ductlon and it is best indicated by actual test. The 
only real test for speed in a race horse is the time 
which it takes him to cover a given distance; in the 
same way, the only real test for the capacity of the 
dairy cow is the amount of milk and butter fat which 
she actually produces, which may be determined by the 
Babcock test, and scales. 

The Raw Material Needed. — The man who manu- 
factures musical instruments must select with great 
care the wood which goes into the finished product, 
because the value of the instruments depends largely 
upon the kind of wood used. He would not choose the 
same raw material as does the man who manufactures 
plows. Thus the man who feeds animals must con- 
sider the product which he wishes to obtain. If milk is 
to be the finished product, he should use one kind of 
feed; if increased fat is the finished product looked for, 
he will use a different kind of feed. Thus corn is a 
good fattening feed, while alfalfa, silage, and bran are 
better milk-producing feeds. 

Food Nutrients. — All feeds contain the following five 
classes of nutrients: protein, carbohydrates or starchy 
materials, fat, water, and mineral substances. All 
these are necessary for the maintenance of animal life. 
Milk and eggs contain a large percentage of protein; 
cjnsequently, in order to get a large production of milk 
and eggs, it is necessary to feed materials that contain 
a large amount of protein. Protein also produces 
growth in the animal and repairs tissues. For this 



FEEDING ANIMALS 



217 



reason growing pigs and growing calves should be given 
large quantities of skim milk or some similar food. 

Narrow and Wide Rations. — A ration is the amount 
of feed an animal eats in a day. The term narrow 




Courtesy cj Animil Eus'-andry Department, University of Illinois. 
Fig. 47. Typical shorthorn heifer. A good example of an animal factory 

FOR TURNING FEED INTO MEAT 

means that the proportion of protein to starchy mate- 
rial is close or narrow, while wide means that the 
proportion is greater. Every food that contains a 
proportion of protein to carbohydrates of less than 
1:5 is called narrow. If the proportion is more than 
1:7 it is called wide. Since corn has about one part 



2i8 FARM PROJECTS 

digestible protein to ten parts of digestible carbo- 
hydrates we say that corn has a nutritive ratio of 
i:io. This means that corn is a rather wide ration 
and is best used as a fattening feed, rather than for the 
production of milk and eggs. Some common feeds 
with their nutritive ratios are as follows: corn, i:io; 
wheat bran, 1:4; oats, 1:6; wheat, 1:8; oil meal, 1:2; 
tankage, 2:1; alfalfa, 1:4; timothy hay, 1:16; oat 
straw, 1 :28. 

The Balanced Ration. — We can now consider what 
is meant by a balanced ration. It means the amount 
of food material which is best suited to an animal's 
needs for one day. If the cow must produce a large 
quantity of milk besides keeping up her body, she 
will need more food and different food than if she did 
not have to produce milk. Hens laying eggs do not 
need the same kinds of feed which they would require 
to produce fat. 

Necessity of a Balanced Ration.— The wise feeder will 
feed raw material which has the constituents that are 
contained in the finished product. Corn has a high 
percentage of starch which is fattening and should be 
fed to animals when a large amount of fat is desirable. 
It is a mistake to feed corn alone for egg production 
because it does not contain enough of the protein which 
is needed for eggs. Pigs will not grow well on corn 
alone, because corn does not contain bone material 
and growth material in large quantity. In an exj^eri- 
mcnt carried on with piss, one lot was fed on corn 



FEEDING ANIMALS 



219 



alone after weaning time and another was fed on corn 
and alfalfa. The pigs in the latter lot each ''dressed 
out" one hundred ten pounds more than the pigs in 
the other lot. The bones of those fed on corn alone 




Fig. 48. A two-year Percheron filly. A good factory for turning raw 

FEED INTO POWER 



were very weak, not half so strong as the bones of the 
pigs fed on corn and alfalfa. Many illustrations of this 
kind can be found. 

A plow factory must have steel, wood, and coal, to 
make plows. No one thinks of making plows from 
other kinds of materials; still it is not an uncommon 



220 FARM PROJECTS 

experience to find farmers trying to produce milk by 
feeding timothy hay and corn, neither of which con- 
tain a high per cent of milk-producing food material. 
Some typical rations for animals are given below: 

No. I. Ration for cow giving five gallo'.is of milk daily: 
Alfalfa lo lb. 1 



Silase 3; lb 



,^ ^ , , , ^ ,, ' > Nutritive ratio 1:6. s 

Lorn and cob meal 8 lb. I 

Linseed meal 2 lb. i 

No. 2. Ration for 1,500 lb. horse doing work: 
Timothy hay 20 lb. ] 

Corn 9 lb. [> Nutritive ratio 1:9.8 

Linseed meal I lb. J 



No. 3. Ration for 200 lb. hogs: 

Corn 7 lb. 

Tankage .25 lb. 



or 



Corn 7 lb. 

Alfalfa I lb. 



Nutritive ratio I :g 



Nutritive ratio 1:9 



No. 4. Ration for 1,000 lb. steer: 

Corn 15 Ih-] 

Linseed meal 3 lb. }> Nutritive ratio 1:6.2 

Alfalfa 4 lb. J 

No. 5. Ration for fattening lambs weighing 75 lb. 

Shelled corn i lb. ] 

Clover hay 1.5 j- Nutritive ratio 1:6.5 

Linseed meal .15 



FEEDING ANIMALS 221 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. Show in what respects the animal is like a factory. 

2. How does the dairy cow differ from the beef cow in form ? 

3. What is meant by "capacity for consumption"? 

4. What is meant by "raw materials"? 

5. Explain "narrow" and "wide" rations. Give examples of 
each. 

6. What IS meant by "balanced ration"? 

7. State the facts and principles learned from the experiment 
quoted. 

8. Name feeds which are good for growth; for fattening. 

9. Compare the rations indicated in this chapter with the 
rations fed on your farm. 

10. Explain this statement made in the text: "The wise feeder 
will feed raw material which has the constituents that are con- 
tained in the finished product." Give examples of such materials. 



VII 
HOW TO TELL THE AGE OF ANIMALS 

Home Work 

Observations. — The home study should include a 
close observation of the habits of the animals on the 
farm and of the anatomy of their mouths. Look into 
the mouths of the horse and cow and try to determine 
the number of teeth which each has. Would you 
expect the horse and cow to differ in the manner of 
eating grass.? Why.? Examine the mouth of the 
sheep. Is it like the horse's mouth, or the cow's 
mouth? Observe them as they eat to find out which 
animal picks the grass most closely.? Can you suggest 
a reason for this difference? Observe old and young 
animals together and list the earmarks which distin- 
guish at once the old horse, the old cow, and the old 
dog. Can you tell the approximate age of animals by 
their appearance? A way of testing your ability is 
to estimate the age of animals on your farm, or on 
some other farm, then to ask someone who knows to 
tell you the correct ages. Which one in the class can 
make the most accurate estimates or guesses? 

The Horse's Mouth. — Ask your father to help you 
to examine the mouths of the horses on your farm. 



HOW TO TELL THE AGE OF ANIMALS 223 

Note all the differences you can observe. List each 
horse that you observe, giving the age, the condition 
of the teeth, and other earmarks as follows: 



Name and Color 
OF Horse 


Age 


Condition of 
Teeth 


Other Earmarks Showing Age 


John, Bay 


4 years 


Corner teeth 
just appearing 


Lively, thrifty, unblemished 











Facts to be Studied 

Indications of Age. — Some of our farm animals, such 
as beef cattle, hogs, and sheep, are marketed before 
they are two years old. Of course, many of these 
animals are kept for breeding purposes, but the average 
life is very short when the total number is considered. 
It is not difficult to tell the age of these animals, because 
the size and general appearance usually indicate the 
age. Any one of the class can tell whether a steer is 
a yearling or a two-year-old by the general development, 
but the age of such animals can be determined more 
accurately by the condition of the teeth. The milk 
teeth, or first set, differ from the permanent teeth, or 
second set. In size, shape, and frequently In color. 
Animals shed the milk teeth at a definite age, which 
is very nearly the same for all animals of a species, but 
which may vary according to conditions, such as early 
maturity or differences In feed. 

The determination of the age of animals which are 
used for a longer time, such as the horse and dairy cow. 



224 FARM PROJECTS 

is more important and also more difficult. The horse's 
usefulness depends largely upon its age, and horse 
buyers always *' mouth" the horse; that is, they look 
into the mouth to tell the age. 

Sheep. — It is not difficult to tell the age of a sheep 
when it is under five years old, as, in general, it is true 
that a sheep is half as many years old as the number 
of front teeth. Sometimes we hear the expression 
*'a two-toothed sheep," meaning a yearling. The first 
pair of pinchers, or front teeth of the sheep, appear when 
the sheep is from twehe to fifteen months old, and 
the next pair of teeth appear when the sheep is two 
years old. The others follow at intervals of one year. 
Thus the sheep is one year old when there are two 
permanent teeth, two years old when there are four, 
three years old when there are six, and four years old 
when there are eight. 

Cattle. — It is not so easy to remember the condition 
of the teeth in the cow's mouth at the different ages. 
The following table will indicate the condition of the 
teeth at various ages: 

At eighteen months — first pair of permanent teeth, or pinchers. 
At thirty months — second pair, first intermediates. 
At thirty-nine months — third pair, or second intermediates. 
At forty-eight months — fourth pair, or corner teeth. 

The cow has a *'full mouth," then, when she is four 
years old. It is difficult to tell the age beyond this 
period. At six years the pinchers have worn level, and 
at eight years they begin to show cups in them. The 



HOW TO TELL THE AGE OF ANIMALS 225 



teeth wear continually, and are good indications of the 
age of the cow. 

If the horns have been allowed to grow, they will 
indicate the age, as a ring appears on each horn 
when the cow is three years old. After that time, one 
new ring appears each year. If the horn shows eight 
rings, the cow is ten years of age. Try this method at 
home and check with the known ages of the cows. 

Horses. — One can tell the age of a horse by the teeth, 
unless the teeth have been 
"doctored" or ground in 
a way to make them ab- 
normal. When the teeth 
first appear, they contain 
deep grooves or cups, and 
after the horse has a full 
mouth, the teeth wear 
rapidly. The cups disap- 
pear because of this 
wearing, disappearing 
first from the two front 
teeth in the lower jaw. 
After that the cups disap- 
pear from one pair each 
year. After the age of 
ten, the teeth begin to 
wear down to a three-sided shape and grow longer. 
At fifteen, the teeth are worn so much that they are 
usually separated by rather wide spaces. 




Fig. 49. Diagram showing condition 
OF horse's teeth at eight years of 
AGE. Cups worn shallow in lower 
teeth. Upper teeth not worn 



226 FARM PROJECTS 

The following poem will help to keep in mind the 
order of eruption and wearing of a horse's teeth, and 
should be memorized: 

The Age of the Horse in Verse 

Two middle nippers you behold 
Before the colt is two weeks old; 
Before eight weeks two more will come; 
Eight months, the "corners" cut the gum. 

At two, the middle nippers drop; 
At three, the second pair can't stop; 
When four years old the third pair goes; 
At five, a full new set he shows. 

The deep black spots will pass from view, 
At six years, from the middle two; 
The second pair at seven years; 
At eight, the spots each "corner" clears. 

From middle nippers, upper jaw. 
At nine the black spots will withdraw; 
The second pair at ten are white; 
Eleven finds the "corners" light. 

As time goes on the horsemen know 
The oval teeth three-sided grow; 
They longer get, project before, 
Till twenty, when we know no more. 

There are some milestones in the life of the horse that 
are distinctly marked by the condition of the teeth. 
To learn these few milestones will aid in remembering 
the details of telling the age of the horse. 



HOW TO TELL THE AGE OF ANIMALS 227 

At two years of age, the first two nippers or perma- 
nent pinchers appear. At five years, a full mouth or 
full set of teeth appears. At eight, the lower jaw Is 
smooth; that is, the cups are worn from all the teeth 
in that jaw. The next year the cups wear from the 
middle nippers of the upper jaw and from another 
pair each year so that at eleven the upper jaw is smooth, 
making another milestone. 



Problems and Review Exercises 

I. The class should arrange the facts gathered from the farm as 
follows : 



Farm (Name) 


Horses, UNDER 5 


Horses, 5-10 


Horses, OVER 10 Years 


































Totals 









What has become of the horses over ten years of age? At what 
age are horses usually sold? What is the best "working age" for 
horses on the farms? 

2. Where do horse buyers ship the horses from your com- 
munity? 

3. Tell how horses are loaded into the car for shipment. How 
many horses will the car accommodate? 

4. How are horses handled and sold in the markets ? 

5. Are milk cows sold as young as horses? When is a milk 
cow at her best for milk production ? 



228 FARM PROJECTS 

6. What becomes of the calves that are not kept for the herd? 

7. Tell about the oldest horse and oldest cow you have ever 
seen. 

8. Estimate the value of the horses on the farms represented 
in the class. 

9. Has the value of horses increased or decreased during the 
past decade.? 

10. Find out at what age the ewes are regarded as too old to be 
kept on the farm. 



VIII 
THE HORSE 

Home Work 

The time spent in studying the horse should be spent 
in observation for the purpose of finding the answers 
to the questions listed. 

Each pupil should again enlist the cooperation of 
his father to help him determine the ages of the horses 
by examining the teeth. If the exact age is known, 
check the accuracy of the method of telling the age by 
the teeth. Your father will help you to find such indi- 
cations of unsoundness as splints, jacks, curbs, ring 
bones, side bones, and moon blindness. Be ready to give 
your father 's method of determining blemishes. Try to 
estimate the weights of the horses. If you have a farm 
scale, weigh some of the horses and check your ability 
to "guess weights." Make some definite observation 
to answer one or two of the following questions each 
day for a week: 

1. How many horses are there on the farms which the members 
of the class represent? 

2. What is the average weight of the horses on your farm ? 

3. What breeds of horses are represented in the community? 

4. Who said, "My kingdom for a horse"? 

229 



230 FARM PROJECTS 

5. How does a horse get up ? 

6. In what way does the pace differ from the trot? 

7. What blemishes and unsoundnesses can you find on the 
horses at home? 

8. What words do your horses seem to understand ? 

9. At what age should the colt be weaned? 

10. How old are the horses on your farm ? 

11. Estimate the yearly cost of keeping a work horse on your 
farm, feeding as your father feeds. 



Facts to be Studied 

The Horse as a Power Machine. — There is approxi- 
mately one horse to every ten people in the United 
States. How does this proportion compare with the 
proportion in your community? There are two main 
types of horses: the light type and the heavy or draft 
type. We shall study only the draft type because it 
is of greater importance than the light type or road- 
ster since the automobile has become so common. 
Although in some sections the farm tractor has partially 
replaced the horse as a power machine, it is safe to 
state that the time is not likely to come when the horse 
will no longer be needed on the farm. There is still 
much work to be done which is not adapted to the use 
of a tractor and since about one horse in five is used up 
each year, farmers must continually breed horses to 
keep the supply up to the demand. The horse is dis- 
tinctly a work animal, and must repay the farmer for 
the care given him by performing service in the form of 



THE HORSE 



231 




232 FARM PROJECTS 

work. This means that the farmer should seek horses 
which are adapted to work. The horse is the farmer's 
servant and should be cared for in the best way possible. 

Breeds of Draft Horses. — The most commonly known 
breed is the Percheron, its name coming from its 
original home, La Perche, France. Percheron horses 
may be any one of a number of colors, the most common 
colors being black and gray. The horses of this breed 
are very active, are built close to the ground, and are 
short and massive in form, with a particularly neat 
head. 

Another breed somewhat similar to the Percheron 
is the Belgian, a breed which is very popular in this 
country. The Belgian is of massive build; the neck is 
short and thick, frequently having a very noticeable 
crest. The characteristic color seems to be roan, al- 
though many other colors are found. The legs are 
somewhat heavier and coarser than those of the Per- 
cheron. 

Two other main breeds of draft horses are found in 
the United States, the Clydesdale originating in Scot- 
land and the Shire coming from England. Both of 
these breeds are distinguished from the first two men- 
tioned by the heavy "feather" or hair on the legs. 
Both breeds usually have white points on the legs and 
face. The Shire is perhaps the heaviest of the draft 
breeds. 

Some Earmarks of a Good Horse. — The work horse 
should be sound, with legs that are clean and free from 



THE HORSE 233 

blemishes. A most important part of the horse's 
anatomy is his foot, which should be large and sound 
with a strong healthy shell on the hoof. Sometimes 
the hoof is flat, exposing the heel to the rough ground, 
causing lameness. This is more likely to be true of 
draft horses than of light horses. 

The horse must have a strong muscular body if he 
is to perform the work which is set for him. The 
quarters should be well muscled and the body should 
not present the long, lanky, and awkward form that is 
sometimes seen. Occasionally we hear the remark 
about a horse, "there is too much daylight under him" 
which means that he is "long coupled" and stands high 
ofif the ground, which is undesirable. The disposition 
of a horse can usually be determined by looking into 
his face. Those which are small, squint-eyed, and 
weasel-faced should be avoided. The neck should be 
muscular and rather high, the low-necked or "ewe- 
necked" horse being undesirable. The general appear- 
ance of the horse is a good indication of his value. Qual- 
ity stands out in the coat, the eye, the mane, and tail, 
and in the action of the horse. A large clear eye, a 
silky coat, and a long tail indicate desirable quality. 

"Horse Sense." — This expression is familiar to all boys 
and suggests that the horse is able to get along fairly 
well if allowed to do as he pleases without interference. 
Farmers sometimes say that when driving on a dark 
night, the best policy is to let the horse pick the road. 
At any rate, horses are very sensitive creatures, as 



234 FARM PROJECTS 

every boy on the farm knows. The language used in 
guiding the horse is famiHar, the terms "Get up,' 
"Whoa," "Gee," "Haw," "Back, "and" Steady" be- 
ing common expressions of the driver. Horses are very 
sensitive to the touch. Riders guide and direct the 
actions of their steeds largely by touch, using a stick, 
the hand, the reins, the leg, the spurs, or the movement 
of the body in the saddle. We should respect this 
sensitiveness of the horse by giving him kind treatment. 

Care of the Horse. — The horse will respond to kind 
and thoughtful care. He also responds to rough treat- 
ment, but not as we should like to have him do. The 
horse is our servant, consequently, we should do all we 
can to make his work easy and profitable, remembering 
that the horse cannot help himself in most cases, but 
is under our control. 

Here is an old verse which tells what the horse will 
appreciate: 

1. "Bear me up the hill, 

Spare me down the hill, 

On the level spare me not, 

But give me drink when I am hot.'* 

2. The legs of the horse often get very tired. How good it 
must feel to him after a hot day's work to have his legs washed and 
rubbed. In the winter, the mud and ice cause "scratches" if the 
legs are left without washing. 

3. The collar must fit exactly or sore shoulders will result as 
the "pull" is on the collar. Boys and girls know how unpleasant 
it is to wear shoes which blister the toes or heels, and a horse 
must feel the same way when the collar hurts. 



THE HORSE 



235 







236 FARM PROJECTS 

4. If the hoof is allowed to split and break off to the "quick," 
how unpleasant it must be. The horse cannot remedy this de- 
fect so the master should tnm the hoofs and keep the horse properly 
shod. 

5. The stables should be kept clean, for horses as well as people 
like clean beds. 

6. Whipping a horse usually does very little good; a better 
response may be obtained through kind treatment. 

7. Give treatment or call a veterinarian as soon as a horse 
shows symptoms of illness and do not continue to work a sick 
horse. 

8. The horse always appreciates plenty of good wholesome 
food; a horse kept in good condition is ready to serve his master 
willingly. 

Some Good Feeds for Horses. — Timothy hay, corn, 
and oats are the feeds most commonly used. There 
are other hays, however, that may be used with results 
as good as or better than those obtained by the use of 
timothy. Alfalfa hay being richer in protein is better 
for growing colts and is also a good feed for work horses. 
Many farmers claim it should not be fed to work 
horses, but the author knows a number of cases in 
which alfalfa was the only hay used for horses, and 
good results were obtained. The difficulty sometimes 
experienced is due probably to overfeeding. Clover 
hay is used extensively as horse feed, but clover and 
timothy mixed is probably better. The horse does not 
use as large quantities of rough feed as the cow does, 
but needs a larger proportion of grain. Usually three 
feeds of grain are given each day. 



THE HORSE 237 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. Give the distinguishing features of the four main draft 
breeds of horses. 

2. Tell where to locate the following blemishes on a horse: 
splint, curb, spavin. 

3. Give five characteristics of a good horse. 

4. What is meant by "horse sense"? 

5. Discuss the important items involved in the care of the horse. 

6. Why should the collar fit exactly.? 

7. Why is it important to know the age of horses.? 

8. Describe the condition of the teeth in the mouth of a horse 
that is five years old. What is meant by a " full-mouthed horse " ? 



IX 
BEEF CATTLE 

Home Work 

Each pupil should study the meat production on 
his home farm and a tabulated statement may be made 
by combining the facts gathered. Fill in the following 
blank form: 

Beef Cattle Survey for School Community 



Farm 



Number 

Beef 
Cattle 



Breed 



Are Feeders 
Raised or 
Purchased 



At What 

Age 
Marketed 



Number 

Sold Last 

Year 



If possible, visit a farm where a beef animal is 
being butchered and observe the process. How does 
butchering beef cattle differ from butchering hogs? 
What is the approximate weight of the hide from an 
animal weighing one thousand pounds .? What is 
tallow.? To what product of the hog does tallow 
correspond.? What is the *' dressing percentage" of 
a beef animal, that is, what per cent of the live weight 
is the dressed weight? 

238 



BEEF CATTLE 



239 



At what age are steers marketed on your farm? 
What method of feeding cattle is used on the farms in 
the community and what are the principal feeds used ? 

Compare a beef cow with a dairy cow and list all 
the differences which you observe. What beef cattle 




Courlay oj Animal Husbandry Department, University oj Illinois. 

FiG. 52. Columbia iith and calf, showing good Hereford type 



do not have horns? How many colors' of beef cattle 
have you seen? Can you tell how a cow gets up? 
Does she get up in the same way that a horse gets 
up? Can you tell why some farmers prefer to feed 
their cattle in open sheds even in the winter time 
rather than to feed them in enclosed barns? Study 



240 FARM PROJECTS 

the feeds fed to steers in the community and estimate 
the cost of feeding a fattening steer six months. 



Facts to be Studied 

Can you imagine a blanket of beefsteak big enough 
to cover the whole state of Indiana, cities, farms, rivers, 
and all other parts? Enough beef is produced in the 
United States each year to make a steak of that size if 
it could be put into one great steak. The beef cow 
furnishes us with one of the most important and staple 
articles of food. She turns her food into meat while 
the dairy cow converts the food she eats into milk. 
Consequently beef cows are not great milk producers. 
It is not possible to produce two products at the same 
time and produce them in large quantity. The cow 
must use her food either for milk production or for 
meat production. A dairy cow is likely to lose flesh as 
she continues to give milk in large quantities, but a beef 
cow should lay on fat as she consumes her feed, pro- 
ducing only milk enough for her calf, except in a few 
instances where milking strains of the beef breeds have 
been developed. 

When Marketed. — Beef cattle are marketed young 
because the beef products from a young animal are of 
much better quality than those of an older animal. 
Then, too, it is not profitable to feed a steer for two 
or three years before he is "finished" for the market 
because the increase in weight is not sufficient to pay 



BEEF CATTLE 241 

for the feed and care. Much of the beef is produced 
from "baby beeves"; that is, from animals of about 
one year of age which have been fattened for market. 
Steers from twelve to eighteen months of age are fat- 
tened and made to weigh from 1,000-1,400 pounds each, 
then are sent to market as "baby beeves." It is 
necessary to have a good grade of cattle in order to 
produce good "baby beef" at a profit. The results 
depend upon a rapid increase in weight, hence the best 
feeders are required for this purpose. 

The Range. — It has been a common practice for 
cattlemen to produce large numbers of feeders, cattle 
ready to be fattened, by pasturing cattle on wide 
ranges in the western part of the United States. These 
feeders are sent to the central markets and are sold 
to farmers who have grain to fatten them. When 
they have been fattened or "finished" they are sent 
to market for slaughter. The ranges are becoming 
somewhat smaller because of the extension of grain 
farming into the west, and more cattle are being 
raised on the farms where they are to be fattened for 
market. 

Feeding Beef Cattle. — Beef cattle may be fattened on 
roughage or on a mixture of grain and roughage. Good 
results have been obtained by feeding corn silage and 
alfalfa hay, with a small amount of cottonseed meal. 
Corn silage is a most satisfactory addition to the ration. 
Steers may be fattened on alfalfa alone if no silage is 
available, as in the case of the western feed lots. 



242 FARM PROJECTS 

Cattle. should receive clover, alfalfa, soy-beans or cow 
peas. Some typical rations are given below for steers 
weighing from eight hundred to one thousand pounds: 

1. Clover hay lo lb. Shelled corn 5 Ih. 

Corn silage 20 lb. 3. Mixed hay 20 lb. 

Shelled corn 10 lb. Corn 10 lb. 

2. Alfalfa 15 lb. 4. Alfalfa At will 

Corn silage 25 lb. Corn silage 20 lb. 

Cottonseed meal. 3 lb. 

Raising the Calf. — Beef calves are usually allowed 
to suck the cow until they are three or four months 
old which gives them a good start and makes a good 
foundation for "baby beef." The dairy calf is usually 
taken away from the mother and fed skim milk and 
some kind of calf meal and a little roughage, because 
the milk from the cow is too valuable to feed the calf 
when it is possible to produce a good dairy calf without 
feeding it the whole milk. If the beef calves are fed 
by hand they should have whole milk at first in order 
to insure a good start. They should in either case be 
given a little grain as soon as they will eat it. A 
mixture of oats and corn with a little cottonseed meal 
or linseed meal makes a good feed for the calves that 
are on pasture and that are getting some milk. If 
baby beef is to be produced, calves must be kept grow- 
ing continuously. 

Breeds of Beef Cattle. — There are four main breeds 
of beef cattle and most farm boys are familiar with at 
least one of the breeds. The main characteristics of 



BEEF CATTLE 



243 



the breeds will be noted here in order that we may 
learn to distinguish them. 

The Shorthorn. — The Shorthorns may be said to be 
the most popular breed in the United States. The 




Courtesy of Animal Husbandry Department, University oj Illinois, 



Fig. 53. Representative Shorthorns. Niagara Duchess and 
Niagara L.-u) 



Shorthorns are blocky in form, presenting a rectan- 
gular appearance from the side view. The horns are 
short and are curved forward. The color may be 
pure white, pure red, or roan. The color is not so dis- 
tinctive as that of "some of the other breeds. Short- 
horns are easily fattened and are very well developed 



244 



FARM PROJECTS 



in the parts of the body where the highest priced cuts 
are found. The breed was developed in England. 

Herefords. — These beautiful cattle are red and white 
in color, having a red body with white face and white 




CouilCiy iij Animat Rmbandry DcfidrtDtciU, Unhcrsily oj Illinois. 

Fig. 54. Such an.mals as these help make profits on the farm. 

underline, and are very popular as grazing cattle. 
They, too, were developed more than a century ago 
in England and have become one of the most important 
breeds. It is said that Henry Clay imported the first 
Herefords into the United States more than a lumdred 
years ago. The horns are very distinctive, being long and 
white, turning in or in some cases turning up, slightly. 



BEEF CATTLE 245 

Angus. — The black hornless Aberdeen Angus cattle 
came to us from Scotland. They are extremely neat in 
form and compact in their build. The beef produced 
is recognized as being of extra good quality. The 
breed is very uniform in size, shape, color, and general 
appearance. Fat Angus steers are usually so uniform 
in size and neat in appearance that they bring the 
highest prices. 

Galloways. — These cattle are also black and horn- 
less. They came from Scotland as did the Angus. 
The Galloways have a very thick coat of long hair which 
sometimes has a brownish tinge and is usually curly 
They are smaller than the other breeds of beef cattle 
described. 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. State the differences between beef cattle and dairy cattle. 

2. If the average dressing percentage of 3,000,000 beef cattle 
going into the Chicago market during one year is 58%, what Is 
the weight of the carcass beef, assuming an average live weight of 
1,050 lb. per animal.'* 

3. If yearling steers make an average gain of 1.75 lb. daily, how 
many days must they be fed to gain 340 lb. each ? 

4. If the average shrinkage due to shipping is 40 lb. per animal, 
what is the total loss to shippers who ship 3,000,000 cattle to Chi- 
cago during a year? What is the value of this shrinkage at 13c. 
per lb. ? 

5. If steers gain 1.8 lb. per diay, how many days' feed is lost 
when they shrink 40 lb. in shipping? (A part of the margin be- 
tween the local buyer's price and the market price is to cover the 
shrinkage.) 



246 FARM PROJECTS 

6. What breed of beef cattle do you like best and why? 

7. Find the total receipts of cattle at the following markets 
each day for one week: Chicago, St. Louis, Kansas City, Indianap- 
olis, Cincinnati. Can you suggest a reason for the differences 
among the cities? On what day of the week is the largest number 
received at the markets? Why? (Consult the market reports in 
a daily newspaper.) 

8. At what age are most of the cattle in your community mar- 
keted ? 

9. Make suggestions for improving the rations fed to beef cattle 
in your community. 

10. If 20 head of steers are fed a ration of 10 lb. mixed hay, 15 lb. 
of corn, and 2 lb. of cottonseed meal each day for 30 days, what 
is the total cost of the feed at your market prices for the feeds men- 
tioned ? What would the daily gain have to be per steer to pay for 
the feed at market prices for cattle? To yield a profit of 20% 
above cost of feed ? 



X 

THE BREEDS OF DAIRY COWS 

Home Work 

Make a survey of the community in order to deter- 
mine the representative breeds of dairy cows in the 
community and the number of each breed. Each 
member of the class should be responsible for his home 
farm and another on the road to school. 

Tabulate the results, as follows: 



Farm 


Breed 


Number 


Total Amount 
OF Milk Daily 



























Secure samples of milk from each of the breeds and 
test with the Babcock tester, following directions 
given in Section HI of Part 11. What differences 
do you find in the quality of the milk .? What differ- 
ences in color markings among the breeds in your com- 
munity do you find.f' 

Ask the farmers to tell you the advantages of the 
different breeds of dairy cows. What breed seems to 
be most popular among the farmers ^ Give the reasons. 

247 



248 FARM PROJECTS 

Facts to be Studied 

The Breeds. — A breed of cattle is a group, the 
members of which are similar in form, size, color, and 
peculiar markings. Much interest has been taken in 
the United States by the associations representing the 
breeds of dairy cattle to promote the interests of their 
breeds. Each breed has its particular good points 
that merit the consideration of every dairyman. The 
major breeds of dairy cattle are: Holstein, Jersey, 
Guernsey, Ayrshire, and Brown Swiss. 

The Holsteins. — The Holstein is the most widely 
distributed breed and is represented by larger numbers 
than any other in the United States. The breed 
originated in the Netherlands, coming from the prov- 
inces of North Holland and West Friesland, The 
Dutch farmers have long practiced dairying, producing 
large quantities of cheese. This breed is perhaps the 
oldest of the dairy breeds. The land in Holland is 
valued at very high prices, and the cattle are fed 
largely upon pasture and hay produced on these rich 
lands. This may account for the size of the breed. 
The Holsteins did not get a start in the United States 
until the beginning of the Civil War, when large 
numbers were imported. A registry association was 
soon formed, and the Holstein has continued to grow 
more popular as a dairy cow. 

Characteristics. — Holsteins are black and white in 
color, most breeders preferring cows with more white 



THE BREEDS OF DAIRY COWS 



249 



on them than black. The spots may be large or small 
and may be distributed in any way. In size the Hol- 
steins are large, the cows weighing from 1,200 to 1,700 
pounds and the males from 1,800 to 2,200 pounds. The 




Courtesy lU.nns Experiment Station. 

Fig. 55. PiETERTji Parthenea Tritomia No. 234291 produced 403.6 lb. milk 

AND 17.36 LB. BUTTER IN J DAYS AND 15,760.7 LB. MILK AND 632.72 LB. BUTTER 
AS A JUNIOR TWO-YE.'\R-OLD. ShE IS OWNED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS. 

breed is not so refined and does not look so much like 
the so-called dairy types as some other breeds, and the 
cows are rugged and eat large quantities of feed. 

Holsteins produce more milk than any other breed but 
the milk is not so rich in butter fat as that from some 
other breeds. The Holstein breed holds the world's 



2SO FARM PROJECTS 

record for milk production and for butter fat produc- 
tion. Tillie Alcarta, a Holstein cow of California, has 
produced more than sixteen tons of milk in one year 
and more than 1,200 pounds of butter fat, making 
almost 1,500 pounds of butter produced in one year by 
one cow. 

Many people object to Holstein milk because it is 
less rich than Jersey milk but part of the difference 
is due to the fact that the particles of fat in Holstein 
milk are much smaller than those in Jersey milk and 
for this reason the cream does not rise so quickly and 
is not so thick. The cream is also Hghter in color than 
Jersey cream. Holstein milk is very digestible, due to 
the condition of the fat particles and many people 
claim that it is much better for babies than the milk of 
any other cow. 

The Holsteins are distributed through nearly all 
parts of the United States, but are found in larger 
numbers in the sections producing milk for the large 
cities. Southern Wisconsin, northern Illinois, and New 
York State are literally dotted with black and white 
cattle grazing on the pastures. One county in Wiscon- 
sin is said to have more than sixty thousand cows, 
mostly Holsteins, giving milk for the creameries, cheese 
factories, and condenseries. The breed is not so widely 
distributed in the southern part of the country as in 
the colder sections near Chicago and New York. 

Jerseys. — The Jersey breed came from a small island 
belonging to the Channel Islands off the coast of 



THE BREEDS OF DAIRY COWS 251 

France and England. The island of Jersey is very 
small, containing only about one hundred square 
miles, but more than ten thousand cattle are kept 
there. No cattle can be shipped into the island from 
the outside, unless they are to be slaughtered imme- 
diately; thus the breeders have been able to keep 
the breed pure and to develop it as they wished. 
Jerseys were introduced into the United States in 
1850. 

Characteristics. — ^Jersey cows are small, usually 
weighing less than one thousand pounds. The main 
color is fawn, with black markings, and sometimes 
white spots are found. The Jerseys are the most 
refined of the dairy breeds, being beautiful animals of 
very fine quality. The true dairy type is found among 
the Jerseys as they do not lay on fat easily, and 
are therefore very poor producers of beef. The Jersey 
has been proved to be a most economical producer of 
dairy products, as most of the food eaten is turned into 
milk. 

The milk is the richest produced by any breed of 
cattle. For family use the Jersey milk is very desir- 
able, as it produces a richly colored thick cream which 
rises quickly. Jerseys are persistent milkers, which 
means that they give milk for long periods of time, 
frequently not going dry from one freshening period 
to the next. 

Jerseys, like Holsteins, are very widely distributed, 
and are to be found in large numbers on the blue grass 



252 FARM PROJECTS 

pastures of the South. They are, by nature, not so 
rugged as the Holsteins, and are better adapted to the 
warmer cHmates. The Jerseys are popular for the 
production of certified milk as the milk meets the 
requirements as to quality and the cows are easily 
handled under the strict sanitary conditions required 
for the production of a high grade of milk. 

Guernseys. — The Guernseys were developed in 
another one of the Channel Islands, the Isle of 
Guernsey, which is about the same size as the island 
of Jersey. When the development of the breed began, 
the cattle were almost like the Jerseys. The breed was 
brought into the United States about forty years ago, 
but despite the many good qualities of the breed, it 
has never become very popular among American 
dairymen. 

Characteristics. — The Guernseys are between the 
Jerseys and Holsteins in size, the color being a reddish 
fawn or orange color with white spots. The udders 
are large with large teats. The cows are not so fine 
in quality and do not present so beautiful an appear- 
ance as the Jerseys. The head is large with a long 
face, giving the cattle a coarser appearance than that 
of the Jersey breed. 

Milk produced by the Guernsey cows is very rich in 
fat, almost equaling that of the Jersey in quality. The 
color is more yellow, giving it a very rich appearance 
and the cream rises very quickly, making the milk 
desirable for family use. 



THE BREEDS OF DAIRY COWS 



253 



Ayrshires. — The Ayrshire cattle were produced in 
Scotland, being developed as a distinct breed at the 
beginning of the nineteenth century. They were 
imported into the United States as early as 1822, but 




Cuiic.j uj Ike Anioii td J Lis, y Calltr Ciuh. 

Fig. 56. Fauvics Prince, Grand Champion, Springfield, Mass., show 1919 
AND Aged Champion National Dairy Show, 1919. His first twelve daugh- 
ters HAVE AVERAGE PRODUCTION OF 9,576 LB. MILK AND 545 LB. FAT. It PAYS 
TO HAVE PURE-BRED LIVE STOCK ON THE F.ARM. 



have never gained the popularity which they seem to 
merit. Pure-bred herds are found in all the dairy 
regions, but not in large numbers. 

Characteristics. — The Ayrshire is the most symmet- 
rical of the dairy breeds; that is, the body is well 



254 FARM PROJECTS 

proportioned and the lines are good. The color is red 
and white. The horns are long and turn upward. The 
milk of the Ayrshire is of good quality, testing about 
four per cent butter fat which is less than the Jersey 
but more than the Holstein milk contains. The color 
is not so yellow as that of the Jersey milk. It is 
expecially good for cheese making. 

Other Breeds. — The Brown Swiss dairy cattle are 
large animals, giving large quantities of rich milk. 
They are most like the beef type of cattle. They are 
easy milkers and are becoming more popular. As the 
name indicates, the cows are brown in color, frequently 
being a greyish brown. 

The Dutch Belted cattle are black with a white 
belt around the body; hence their name. They are 
not heavy milkers, and are not very popular for milk 
production in the United States. 

The Milking Shorthorn is gaining popularity in 
sections where a dual-purpose cow is wanted, as the 
calves make good beef cattle. The milking qualities 
are being improved. 

Summary. — Perhaps no animals have been given so 
much attention as the dairy cattle, because milk is 
one of the staple foods of the home. Milk produc- 
tion has been increased to such an extent that it seems 
as though further improvement could scarcely be ex- 
pected, and yet each year brings higher records. While 
it is true that high records have been reached in a 
few instances, the great mass of dairy cattle have 



THE BREEDS OF DAIRY COWS 255 

not approached the largest production. The best 
year's production from a single cow is more than thirty- 
seven thousand pounds of milk, but the average pro- 
duction is probably not more than one tenth of this 
quantity. 

Profits from dairy cattle depend upon the amount 
of milk produced, so the goal of every one interested 
in dairy cattle of any breed should be higher pro- 
duction. The following records show the maximum 
yields that have been reached by breeders. 

The world's record milk production for one year is 
held by the following cows representing their respective 
breeds: 

Breed Name of Cow Production 

Ayrshire Garclaugh's May Mischief 25329 lb. of milk 

Jersey Passport 19695 lb. of milk 

Guernsey Murmie Cowan 24008 lb. of milk 

Holstein Segis Pietertje Prospect 37381.4 lb. of milk 

The world's record fat production for one year is 
held by the following individuals for their respective 
breeds: 

Breed Name of Cow Production 

Ayrshire Lillie of Willowmoor 955-6 lb. of fat 

Jersey Plain Mary 1040.08 lb. of fat 

Guernsey Countess Prue 1 103.28 lb. of fat 

Holstein Bella Pontiac 1259.0 lb. of fat 

To find the amount of butter produced from the 
above amounts of fat, multiply the amount of fat in 
each instance by one and one sixth. 



2S6 FARM PROJECTS 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. What are the earmarks by which you can distinguish the 
Holstein breed? the Jersey? the Guernsey? the Ayrshire? 

2. Find the approximate value of all the Holstein cows on the 
farms in the school community. Of the other breeds. 

3. Which breed sells for most money in your locality? 

4. Tillie Alcarta produced 33,425 lb. of milk in one year. How 
many pounds per day did she average for the year? If a quart of 
milk weighs 2.18 lb., how many quarts did she produce in a year? 
How many gallons per day did she average? What was the value 
of her milk at 123^ cents per quart? If it cost $150 to feed her one 
year, what was the profit over the cost of feed if the milk sold at 
12^ cents per quart? How many children would she have sup- 
plied with milk daily if each child consumed one quart? How 
many 50-gallon measures could have been filled with her milk 
during the year? 

5. Duchess Skylark Ormsby produced 1,205 It)- of butter fat in 
one year. What was her average daily production? How much 
butter is used daily in your home? If you had owned this cow, 
how much butter could you have sold weekly above the amount 
used by the family? (See rule for changing butter fat to butter.) 

6. Estimate the total daily production of milk on all the farms 
represented in the class. What is the average per cow? Will the 
product yield a profit if it costs $125 a year to feed each cow? 

7. Write a composition on one of the following subjects: How 
I Learned to Milk. The Breed I Like Best. My Favorite Cow. 
What Should Cows Be Fed? 



XI 
SWINE 

Home Work 

Suggestions for raising a litter of pigs are given in 
another chapter. We shall discuss in this chapter the 
breeds of hogs. 

Make a survey of the school community to determine 
the extent to which pure-bred hogs are raised and the 
number of breeds represented. Fill out the following 
blank: 





Farm 


Number of 
Hogs 


Pure-Bred 
OR Grade 


Breed 


Approximate 
Value 
































Total 











What is the favorite breed of the community.? 
Give some reasons why this breed is the favorite one. 
At what age are hogs marketed .? Do the farmers who 
own pure-bred hogs like them better than grades? 
What are their reasons.? 

Study all the breeds of hogs you can find on the farms 
on the way to and from school in order to compare 

257 



258 



FARM PROJECTS 



them. Note the differences in regard to the following 
points: shape of head, way in which the ears are held, 
general shape of body, color, peculiarities. 



Facts to be Studied 

Importance of the Swine Industry. — In 19 19 there 
were almost 75,000,000 hogs in the United States. 
Pork is a staple meat product and the products which 




Courlcsy Poland Ckiiia Breeders Association, 

Fig. 57. Josephine ist, No. 738088. Grand Champion Poland China sow, 
National Swine Show, 1918, at Cedar Rapids, Iowa 

come from hogs, such as lard, are necessities. The 
shortage of fats during the war was an indication of 
the real importance of these products and the swine 
industry was increased very rapidly at that time. 



SWINE 259 

More than 10,000,000,000 pounds of pork were pro- 
duced in the U.S. during 1919. Pork has been much 
relished as an article of food throughout the history of 
man. The wild boar was hunted for his meat. The 
pork industry will ever be a thriving part of the farm 
business, though the rise and fall of the markets will 
cause farmers to vary the number of hogs that they 
keep on the farm. 

Breeds. — Every farmer, when he goes into the swine 
business, has to confront the question: What breed shall 
I choose .f* There is a large number of breeds and the 
choice of any one depends upon the locality and the 
individual liking of the farmer. A school boy who was 
a pig club member favored the Chester White as a breed, 
but he said there was already in the community a 
Duroc Jersey Breeders' Association that held annual 
sales and advertised their stock very widely, so he chose 
the Duroc Jersey breed and began the hog business in 
cooperation with his neighbors. 

There are two main types of hogs: the lard type 
and the bacon type. 

The Berkshire.— -These hogs are becoming very 
popular in the United States. They are black in 
color with white points on the feet and face. The 
face is short and very much "dished," giving a peculiar 
shape and appearance to the head. The breed is gener- 
ally considered of the lard type although it was origi- 
nally of the bacon type in England where the breed was 
developed. 



26o 



FARM PROJECTS 



Duroc Jersey. — This breed is one of the most popular 
of the lard type. The hogs are red in color and are 
very symmetrical in form. The ears droop over the 
eye, while the ear of the Berkshire stands almost 
erect, pointing a little forward. The Duroc Jerseys 




Courtesy Poland China Breeders Association. 

Fig. 58. Grand Champion pen of barrows over all breeds at International 
Live Stock. Exposition, 1918 

are good feeders, are quiet, and raise large litters 
of pigs, all of which makes them popular with the 
farmer. 

Poland China. — This breed was developed in the 
United States and was intended to be a corn-belt hog 
of the lard type. It is distinctly of the lard type, blocky 
in form, and matures very quickly. It has enjoyed 
more popularity than any other breed in the United 



SWINE 261 

States because it is adapted to a grain-raising country. 
There are two varieties, the black and white spotted 
and the black. The black swine are much more com- 
monly found. Some types of Poland Chinas grow to be 
very large, exceptional ones weighing more than 1,000 
pounds. 

The Chester White. — These beautiful white hogs 
have never been so popular as some of the other breeds, 
though they deserve much credit. The breed was 
developed in the United States. The hogs are large, 
belonging to the lard type, but are inclined to be a 
little coarse. 

Bacon Types. — The Yorkshires, white in color, and 
the Tamworths, red in color, are the main breeds of 
the bacon type. They are long, rangy, upstanding, 
and grow to an enormous size. Both breeds are good 
hustlers or foragers and put on weight rapidly but 
do not get fat as the Poland Chinas or other lard 
breeds do. 

The Hampshire.— This breed is marked by a white 
band about the body over the shoulders and front 
legs. At first it was a bacon-type breed but the 
present tendency is to develop it as a lard type. These 
hogs are good foragers. 

Other breeds are: the mulefoot, an old breed with 
a hoof solid instead of cloven; the Victoria, a small 
white hog; the Cheshire, a white breed originating 
in New York; and the Essex, a small black English 
breed. 



262 FARM PROJECTS 

Review Problems and Exercises 

1. How many breeds are represented in your community? 

2. Give some reasons for raising a single breed of hogs rather 
than having a mixed herd. 

3. What is your favorite breed? Give your reasons for choos- 
ing this breed. 

4. What was the average number of pigs in a Utter on your 
farm during the past year? 

5. Give some suggestions for the housing of sows and their 
litters gained from your experience or observation. 

6. Give some reasons for the favoritism shown the bacon hog 
in England while the lard type is most popular in the United States. 



xu 

SHEEP 

Home Work 

Habits. — Observe the habits and actions of the 
sheep about the farm. How does the sheep get up? 
How does it He down? What is pecuHar about the 
sheep's mouth? What happens when a flock of sheep 
is frightened by a dog or some other enemy? How 
does a ewe find her lamb when it is lost? How can 
she tell her lamb from the others in the flock? 

Handling. — Catch a sheep and examine it to find the 
answers to the following questions: What color is the 
skin? How many teeth has the sheep? What is its 
age? Is the body well filled out with fat or is it long 
and angular? Estimate the length of the wool fibers. 
To catch and hold a sheep, grasp it by the neck and 
hold it by the fore part of the body and do not attempt 
to hold it by the wool. In making an examination 
of the body and wool the hands should be kept flat and 
the fingers together. To part the wool, use both hands 
with the fingers together; never tear the wool apart 
with the fingers. 

Docking. — If there are lambs on your farm, help 
your father to dock them when they are from one to two 

263 



264 FARM PROJECTS 

weeks of age. One person should hold the lamb in 
his arms with its belly outward while another person 
cuts off the tail about one and one quarter inches from 
the body with a sharp knife or a docking iron. Sheep 
men now use the docking iron in preference to the 
knife. This iron is a kind of pincers which is heated 
to redness and used in clipping or burning the tail, thus 
searing it to prevent bleeding. 

Shearing. — Help your father to shear the sheep if 
you have any. At what time of the year should the 
shearing be done? How many pounds of wool may 
be obtained from a single sheep.? What price does 
wool bring on the local market? Describe the process 
of shearing as you have seen it done. If you do not have 
sheep on the farm, perhaps you can go to a near-by 
farm where sheep are kept and make the observations 
that have been suggested in this lesson. 

Survey. — Determine the number of sheep on the farms 
in your community and classify them as to the differ- 
ent breeds which are represented. Do farmers buy 
sheep to fatten them or do they raise all the lambs which 
are fed for market? At what age are the lambs 
marketed? Find out if possible what handicaps or 
obstacles the farmers meet in growing sheep in the 
community? Find out all you can about the laws of 
your state regarding the treatment of sheep-killing 
dogs. Describe the actions of a sheep-killing dog and 
the method which he uses in killing sheep. What was 
the total value of products sold from the sheep on your 



SHEEP 265 

farm last year ? Compare this amount of money with 
the amount received from the sale of other animal 
products. 

Facts to be Studied 

Types of Sheep. — There are two main types ot 
sheep: the mutton type and the wool type. It is 
true that the mutton type produces wool and the 
wool type produces mutton, but the two types are 
distinct inasmuch as each is especially adapted to the 
production of one or the other of the two products. 
The mutton type is very blocky and plump, having a 
short compact body that is well filled out, while the 
wool type is less compact, more angular, and possesses 
an abundance of fine long wool. In general, we may 
say that there is the same difference in form between 
the two types as there is between the beef cow and the 
dairy cow. 

Breeds. — There are so many different breeds of sheep 
that we shall not attempt to distinguish them in this 
short lesson. Some of the points which mark the 
breeds are: kind of wool, covering on the face and legs, 
color of the face, and the general form of the body. 
The most important wool breeds are the Merino and the 
Rambouillet, while the most important mutton breeds 
are the Shropshire, Southdown, Hampshire, and 
Oxford. Most of the breeds were originally bred 
and improved In England. Some other breeds of sheep 
are the Cheviot, Leicester, Dorset Horn, and Tunis. 



266 FARM PROJECTS 

A breed that is much newer or younger than those 
mentioned is the Corriedale, a cross between the two 
types of sheep. It was first bred in New Zealand and 
is being improved there. 

Earmarks of the Breeds. — While it is not possible to 
dwell at length upon the many earmarks of the breeds 
of sheep, a few of the more important distinguishing 
marks among the common breeds will be listed. 

The Southdown: Neat in form; low, blocky, and 
compact. Face grey or light brown, uncovered below 
the eyes. The wool covers the legs above the knees. 
Noted for the neatness of body form. 

Shropshire: Heavy, blocky, plump appearance. Face 
covered with wool, legs covered to the pasterns. Dark 
brown nose. A very popular mutton breed. 

Hampshire: More rangy than the first two men- 
tioned. Face covered to a line just below the eyes. 
Face and legs very dark brown in color. 

Oxford: Larger than the other breeds. Face brown 
and uncovered below the eyes. 

Merino: Face and legs covered with wool. Great 
folds and wrinkles of very fine long wool covering the 
entire body. Rather angular in form. 

Rafnbouillet: Larger than the Merino. Face white, 
covered to the nose. Wrinkles confined to the neck 
and shoulders. 

Where Sheep Are Raised. — Sheep have been a part of 
the wealth of nations since before the time of Abraham 
and are now raised in all parts of the world south of 



SHEEP 



267 




268 FARM PROJECTS 

the latitude of the northern boundary of the United 
States. The regions of greatest importance in the 
sheep industry are Great Britain, AustraHa, southern 
Europe, and South America. Sheep are distributed 
through all parts of the United States in rather large 
numbers, but the number per square mile is not so 
large as the number in other countries mentioned. 

Habits. — Sheep flock together by nature and follow 
their leader, which makes it possible to herd them in 
large flocks. Flocks of two thousand or more are to 
be found on the grazing lands of the western part of 
the United States. Sheep are naturally good feeders 
and good foragers, which means that they will clean 
up a field in good shape and will yield a profit by grazing 
on land which would otherwise be unfit for use. Sheep 
crop the grass more closely than do cattle or horses, 
and will eat many weeds which are not relished by 
other animals. Farmers in the corn belt frequently 
use sheep in the corn field before husking and some- 
times leave them in the field to fatten on the corn. 

Importance of Wool. — The importance of wool pro- 
duction for the purpose of manufacturing woolen goods, 
especially clothing, is often underestimated. The in- 
come from wool is usually about one third the total 
amount of income from the flock. More attention 
will be given to wool production as the population 
increases and the demand for woolen goods increases. 
Farmers in the sections where sheep raising is not the 
main industry frequently *'pool" their wool; that is, 



SHEEP 269 

they put all the wool produced in one community 
together and sell it in a large lot in order to get the 
best prices for it. 

A single sheep will produce from six to forty pounds 
of wool, depending upon the breed of the sheep and 
the condition in which it is kept. The average yield 
is perhaps below ten pounds per head in the United 
States, but exceptional yields have reached forty 
pounds. The wool breeds yield more wool per head 
than the mutton breeds. The long wool is known as 
combing wool and the short wool as clothing wool. 

Shearing. — Sheep are usually sheared in April or 
May in the United States, though they may be sheared 
earlier than this when larger flocks are changed from 
winter quarters to the grazing grounds. It is better 
for the sheep if the shearing is done after the weather 
has begun to grow warm in the spring and the wool is 
then in better condition as it has begun to "liven up." 
The power machine is used in most instances for shear- 
ing sheep. One who is not an expert can do a neater 
job and can do it faster with the power machine than 
with the hand shears. It is necessary to exercise great 
care not to cut the body and at the same time to get 
close enough to the skin to get all the wool the first 
time the shears are run over the body. The wool from 
a single sheep is called a fleece and is tied in a bundle 
with the flesh side outward. The bundles are then 
placed in large sacks and stored until time to take 
them to market. 



270 FARM PROJECTS 

Care of the Flock. — It is frequently said that sheep 
require less care than other farm animals, but if this is 
true, it is also true that they respond very readily to 
good care. The fact that they are good foragers makes 
it possible to turn the flock into wood pastures, corn 
fields, meadows, or grazing lands and leave them with 
little further attention as long as they have access to 
water and salt. On the western ranges one man will 
herd as many as two thousand head of sheep without 
the help of anyone except a partner who takes care of 
the camp and does the cooking. Did you ever wish 
to go west and become a sheep herder and ride up and 
down the valleys.? Many a young man has had the 
experience of going to the western ranch to herd sheep 
only to find it a very monotonous kind of work. In 
the corn belt, sheep are not herded at all, but kept in 
small pastures and fed in part on grain and hay. They 
are provided with good shelter and much care is given 
to them, especially at the lambing period, as the weather 
at this time of year is likely to be very disagreeable. 

Feeding Hints. — More attention is being given to 
sheep feeding than was formerly given, because the 
grazing lands are less extensive. Farmers are not only 
raising lambs and feeding them for market, but they 
are shipping sheep from the western ranches and 
** finishing" them on the grain that is produced on the 
farms of the Middle West. These feeders, as the sheep 
are called, may be found on the market in the fall and 
early winter just when the grain farmer is ready to 



SHEEP 271 

feed. Much care is necessary in starting the sheep on 
a grain ration as they are accustomed to the pasture 
only. Some hay or other roughage is usually fed at first 
and the grain is gradually added to the ration. The 
grain is fed from troughs built low, and the hay is fed 
from racks. Sheep are very particular about having 
their food clean and much of the food will be wasted if the 
farmer is careless and allows the troughs to become dirty. 
Sheep are ruminants like cows; that is, they chew the 
cud, which means that they have four stomachs and 
re-chew the food after taking it into the first or large 
stomach. Animals with stomachs such as sheep and 
cows can make use of large quantities of rough feed. 
Sheep like almost any kind of hay or roughage, but 
alfalfa and clover make especially good hay for them 
because these are very good for growth. Corn silage 
may be fed to sheep with good results if the silage is 
of very good quality. When hay and grain are fed 
for fattening purposes, one pound of grain may be 
fed to two pounds of hay at the beginning of the feed- 
ing period and the grain may be increased until twice 
as much grain as hay is fed at the close of the fattening 
period. Sheep seem to make better use of corn when 
it is fed as shelled corn than when it is fed as ground 
feed. 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. Name the breeds of sheep that you have seen and describe 
the differences. 

2. Describe the two general types of sheep. 



272 FARM PROJECTS 

3. Mark the farms on the community map where sheep are 
raised. 

4. Ewes in a feed lot ate one hundred and ten pounds of grain 
and the same amount of alfalfa in ninety days, and gained twenty- 
seven pounds each. How much feed was required per pound of 
gain ? How much feed was eaten per day ? 

5. What was the total wool production in your school com- 
munity last year? 

6. Lambs weighing ninety-five pounds each were fed ninety- 
eight days and gained 27.5 pounds each. What was the gain per 
day.? If they required six pounds of grain and eight pounds of 
clover hay for each pound of gain, how much of each was consumed 
daily.? 

7. Estimate the cost of feeding 100 head of sheep ninety days, 
using such grain and hay as you have on j^our farm and figurmg 
the feed at current prices. 

8. What would be the value of the wool yield from twenty head 
of ewes, averaging 8 pounds per fleece, at the current price for 
wool .? 

9. When do the sheep become too old to be profitable on the 
farm.? What condition indicates old age in sheep.? 



XIII 
RAISING A PET LAMB 

Home Work 

Perhaps you can secure an orphan lamb for a pet. 
Besides the fun of raising it, there may be much 
profit to be gained. Possibly if the lamb is a ewe, 
you will wish to keep it and start a flock of your own. 
The first pet that one of the authors ever owned was a 
lamb rescued from a cold spring rain after it had been 
left alone by its mother. It proved to be the source 
of a new interest in animals. 



Facts to be Studied 

Birth. — Lambs are usually born in the spring when 
the weather is likely to be changeable, and when cold 
wet nights are frequent. Ewes should be given sep- 
arate pens at lambing time if possible. It will not be 
strange if some of the lambs seem to be helpless when 
born. The good shepherd stays near the ewes at lamb- 
ing time in order to help the little creatures when they 
are unable to help themselves. The pen should be 
warm and well protected from the weather, as lambs 
become chilled very easily. If the day is cold, it may 

273 



274 FARM PROJECTS 

be a good plan to wrap the newly born lamb in a warm 
cloth. The first meal is important, and it will be well 
to help the baby lamb in its first efi^orts. The young 
lamb appears as a wabbly creature with more legs 
than body, and one wonders how it will ever fill out 
into the symmetrical, playful suckling which it is soon 
to become. 

The Mother Knows Her Own. — When several lambs 
are in one lot, they sometimes get mixed and the 
mother loses her lamb and refuses to claim it. One 
wonders how the mother knows her own when there 
are hundreds of sheep with their lambs in one flock. 
The ewe knows her lamb at first through the sense of 
smell, and after a while she learns to know it by sight. 
If she refuses to claim it, draw some of her milk and 
smear it on the lamb and she will soon claim it as her 
own. 

Sometimes ewes disown their lambs several days 
after birth for no apparent reason. It is then necessary 
to hold the mother while the lamb sucks, and even this 
does not always eff^ect a reconciliation between mother 
and lamb. If the lamb is strong, it will usually take 
care of itself after a few days, unless the mother 
becomes actually vicious in her efi^orts to keep it from 
sucking. In any case, do not neglect a lamb, but 
make sure that it is getting the required amount of 
food. 

The Orphan. — A lamb may become an orphan 
through the death of the mother, or because the 



RAISING A PET LAMB 275 

mother positively disowns it, or because the mother 
does not furnish enough milk. The last reason is 
sometimes the case when there are twins or triplets. 
If there is another ewe which can be made to claim 
the orphan, this is the best way to dispose of it. If 
a foster mother cannot be found, the next thing to 
do is to prepare a bottle with a nipple and feed the 
orphan warm, fresh cow's milk. The lamb should be 
fed often and given only a small amount at a time, 
about a tablespoonful at a feeding. Children are 
apt to overfeed in their anxiety to give the helpless 
creature enough to start its growth. A pupil in one 
of the author's classes was given a colt to raise, as the 
mother had died at the birth of the colt. Too much 
milk was given during the first twelve hours. The 
boy did not get up to feed the colt during the night, 
and the next morning found it dead in the stall. 
Remember that Nature is very painstaking in feeding 
the young. After a few days the lamb will be eager 
for the bottle. 

Grain for the Lamb. — Lambs will begin to eat a 
little grain when two weeks old, and may be induced 
to nibble at such food even before this time. Especially 
is this true of the pet lamb after it becomes accustomed 
to taking the bottle. A little grain in the hand is very 
tempting to it, but one should be careful not to feed 
too much, although you will find that the lamb is not 
so likely to overload its stomach with grain as it was 
with the milk the first day. After a few weeks it will 



276 FARM PROJECTS 

be eating a quarter of a pound a day. Crushed corn, 
wheat bran, and Hnseed meal make a good grain 
mixture, containing plenty of protein for growth as 
well as the required mineral matter which the bran 
supplies. 

Hay and Grass. — The young lambs enjoy frolicking 
in the yard, and soon begin to nibble the grass, liking 
it so well that they will eat grass in preference to grain. 
If they do not get grass, it is well to let them have some 
clover hay to nibble. Even if they are allowed good 
pasture, some dry hay may be given to them in the 
feed rack. 

Weaning. — Lambs need to suckle the mother longer 
than most other young, but may be weaned at 
the age of four months. If they are allowed to run 
with the mother, they will suckle longer than this, 
but it is injurious to the mother to allow them to 
suckle for a much longer time. We must remember 
that the mother has had a big strain on her con- 
stitution and that she needs a rest. The ewes may 
be taken away from the lamb abruptly, or the 
mother and lamb may be separated gradually. The 
lambs should be on pasture at the weaning time. 
Lambs at this time will be eating about a half pound 
of grain daily, and the amount may be gradually 
increased. 

Care After Weaning. — The lambs should be watched 
closely at this time. Sanitation and good feed are 
the key words to successful management. The hot 



RAISING A PET LAMB 277 

weather of the summer is hard on sheep and the 
lambs will not thrive in rains and muddy weather. 
Farmers provide artificial shade and shelter for the 
sheep during the summer. A prominent sheep breeder 
in Illinois makes a point of having a shed provided in 
the pasture which can be moved about to insure 
sanitation. With a few lambs, there is very little 
difficulty in providing such a shade. 

Enemies. — Sheep are subject to attacks from a 
number of insects, such as lice, scab mites, ticks, 
flies, and the stomach worm. Perhaps the last men- 
tioned is the most harmful. The stomach worm is a 
slender worm, less than an inch in length, which infests 
the fourth stomach of the sheep, where it sucks the 
blood from the tiny vessels on the lining of the stomach, 
causing the animal to become weak, and sometimes 
causing death. The animal becomes pale and loses 
flesh very rapidly. These worms are picked up on 
the grass of the pastures where they live upon the 
grass until they are taken into the stomach of the 
sheep. Sheep should not be kept upon the same pas- 
ture from year to year if the stomach worm is found 
there. 

When the sheep become infested with the worm, one 
remedy is a drench of gasoline. This is not a pleasant 
kind of medicine, so the sheep must be held and 
drenched with a long necked bottle, care being taken 
to prevent strangulation. The drench is made by 
mixing the gasoline with sweet milk. It should be 



278 FARM PROJECTS 

given in three doses on as many successive mornings, 
being given after the sheep has been without water or 
food for a half day. The first dose for the Iamb may 
be made by mixing one teaspoonful of gasoHne with 
about five ounces of sweet milk; the second and third 
dose may be increased to a tablespoonful of gasoline 
and five ounces of milk. 

At best such remedies furnish only a partial relief 
and the source of the worms must be removed, or 
more worms will reach the stomach. The danger from 
the stomach worm is only another warning to young 
people to keep on the watch for any trouble that may 
arise in the flock. When any disease or other disorder 
arises, consult a veterinarian or some one who can 
help you to eliminate it. Do not become discouraged, 
but when disorders arise, make every possible effort 
to learn the cause and the effect. Perhaps you will 
be able to discover a means of preventing some of 
the disorders. 

Marketing. — Lambs may be marketed at different 
ages. Perhaps the boys who have raised lambs will 
wish to market them as early as possible in order 
to get early money returns. The lambs should be 
ready to market at weaning time or soon thereafter. 
At this time they should be in good condition, as 
choice meat comes from the lambs marketed at this 
time. If the lambs are sold at four months of age, 
there is much less risk to run than if they are kept 
longer. 



RAISING A PET LAMB 279 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. Why should newly born lambs have special care? 

2. How would you treat a lamb which was chilled at birth? 

3. Tell how to start an orphan lamb on food. 

4. How can the mother be persuaded to own a lamb which she 
has disowned? 

5. Make up rations for feeding lambs at the various periods of 
their lives. 

6. Tell how to dock lambs. 

7. How may lambs be marketed? 

8. At what season are lambs usually born? 

9. If you have a pet lamb, keep a record of the amount of milk 
and other food which you feed it. Determine the cost of raising 
the lamb and the profit which it yields. 

10. Does the lamb have a full set of temporary teeth at birth? 
Does it have teeth in both jaws? 



XIV 
RAISING A LITTER OF PIGS 

Class and Home Work 

The pig clubs of the United States have been among 
the most popular of all clubs because boys and girls 
like to raise pigs. The pig is a favorite because it 
grows into money rapidly and responds quickly to 
good care and feeding. The nation's need for pork 
and fats during the past few years, as we have 
pointed out, has increased pig raising. The club 
boys and girls have been eager to do their share 
toward increasing the production of the necessary food 
products. 

It will be well for the class to form themselves into 
a live-stock club unless the members already belong to 
a club. If it is thought best not to form a club, each 
boy and girl may arrange to raise some pigs through 
the year without the aid of a club leader. If possible, 
arrange with your father to care for a gilt and her 
litter until the pigs are ready for market. At least 
keep a watch over the growth of the pigs and keep such 
records as are possible. The following suggestions are 
meant to help you and your father in getting the best 
results. 

280 



RAISING A LITTER OF PIGS 



281 



Facts to be Studied 

Care and Feed. — The bulk of the pig crop is farrowed 
in the spring when the first warm days come and the 
remainder are born in the fall. We will assume that the 
little pigs are born in the spring — March or April. 











^1 








.■•A 


jHk 


v^^hHI^b^ '^^^^^^H 


B 



Fig. 60. One of Lovd's herd. It weighed 50 pounds when it was 

50 DAYS OLD. 

When the pigs are young the mother should have 
good care and feed, and be allowed to run in a lot that 
is dry and clean. It is sometimes supposed that pigs 
prefer muddy, filthy places, but this is not true, for 
they much prefer sanitary quarters and will do better 



282 FARM PROJECTS 

if they do not have to wade through mud and eat 
their corn in filthy feed lots. A house that is warm 
and comfortable will be appreciated by the sows. 
They should be bedded frequently with straw. 

Some sort of green food is necessary to take the 
place of pasture which is not available. Roots, alfalfa, 
or pumpkins make good succulent or green feed. The 
alfalfa is rich in bone and muscle building materials. 
The grain ration may consist of middlings, corn, and 
ground oats, with a little tankage added to the ration. 
Mineral matter is also necessary in large amounts. 
The story of how one school boy beat his father in 
raising pigs will illustrate the importance of the proper 
feed for the mother and the litter. 

The father and son chose two gilts each, all from the 
same litter. The father fed on corn and slop made 
from the kitchen refuse with a small amount of shorts 
added. The son built a self-feeder with several com- 
partments; in one he put corn, in another ground 
oats, and in the others, tankage, limestone, rock phos- 
phate, and a mixture of slack coal and salt. Four 
litters of pigs were born in April. The mothers had 
had the freedom of a blue grass pasture and secured 
such green food as was available in the early spring. 
The son found himself the owner of fourteen well- 
formed, strong-boned pigs without a single runt 
among them. The father saved thirteen pigs from 
his two gilts, but had three runts in the lot. The 
father's gilts were fat at farrowing time because they 



RAISING A LITTER OF PIGS 283 

had had all the com they wanted. The son's gilts 
were not fat, but were in good condition and were 
well grown. The author saw these four litters when 
they were four weeks old and it was not easy to believe 
that they were all born within a two-day period. The 
son's pigs were far ahead of the father's in bone devel- 
opment, in uniformity, and in growth. The friendly 
contest between father and son was a good lesson to 
both and the father adopted the ration which the son 
and his teacher had worked out. He was so pleased 
with the boy's success that he gave him the two gilts 
with their fine litters and arranged for him to start a 
bank account for the purpose of paying his expenses 
through high school and some day through the College 
of Agriculture. 

Feeding the Mother. — For the first three or four 
weeks the food of the pigs consists solely of the mother's 
milk. During this time the mother is essentially a 
milk-producing machine and should be fed as such. 
Milk of sows is richer in food solids, particularly fats 
and casein, than cow's milk. The sow that furnishes 
milk for an average-sized litter must produce at least 
one pound of solids in her milk each day. Corn is too 
fattening and does not contain enough protein to make 
it a good milk producer. Wheat bran, wheat mid- 
dlings, skim milk, ground oats, with clover or alfalfa 
pasture, make an excellent combination for producing 
milk. The sow should be fed a slop made of mid- 
dlings or bran, and brought to a full ration gradually. 



284 



FARM PROJECTS 



Feeding the Pigs. — The Httle pigs will begin to eat 
with the mother when they are about three weeks old. 
A trough should be provided in a pen where the sow 
cannot reach it, but where the pigs can get to it easily. 




Fig. 61. A HIGH schoolboy and a part of his herd. A part of his laboratory 
WORK IN Agriculture is growing hogs under the supervision of his 

TEACHER. 



A little skim milk or slop made from skim milk and 
bran or shorts should be put into this trough when the 
sow is fed. Do not give the pigs more than they will 
eat at a time. The trough should be kept clean and 
not allowed to become sour from stale feed, as stale 



RAISING A LITTER OF PIGS 285 

and sour slops will cause digestive disorders in the 
young pigs. A little shelled corn should be added to 
the ration as soon as the pigs will eat it. 

Weaning. — Pigs which have had some feed, such as 
that mentioned, during the suckling period, will be 
in good condition for weaning at the age of eight or 
nine weeks. Some farmers wean at an earlier period, 
but the pigs do not thrive so well. If they run with 
the sow for a much longer period, the sow will not be 
in good condition to produce another litter in the fall. 

The methods of feeding pigs after weaning time will 
vary according to the purpose in the mind of the 
feeder. Pigs that are to be fattened for the market 
will require different feeds than those that are to be 
raised for breeding purposes. We will assume that 
the litter in question is to be marketed for pork. 

The first problem of the feeder is to make the pig 
grow, producing a good framework of body on which 
to put fat later in the season. Growing pigs need 
plenty of mineral substance and protein. One hog 
breeder recommends for the mineral substance a mix- 
ture of a half bushel of slack coal, a peck of slacked 
lime, and five pounds of salt. This should be placed 
in a box where the pigs can get it. Then, too, feeds 
which contain much mineral matter should be fed. 
Wheat and wheat bran contain much mineral matter, 
but corn does riot contain sufficient mineral matter. 
Alfalfa and clover pasture are excellent feeds for grow- 
ing pigs. 



286 FARM PROJECTS 

Rations suggested for growing pigs after weaning are :* 

1. Corn I part 3. Corn full feed 

Skim milk 2-4 parts Tankage .4 lb. per pig 

2. Corn 4-6 parts daily. 

Ground oats or mid- 4. Corn, tankage, and mid- 
dlings 2 parts dlings in self-feeder. 

Tankage i part 

Pigs should be ready for market at from six to eight 
months of age. At this time they will weigh from two 
hundred to three hundred pounds if they have been 
properly fed. No animal is quite so efficient in the 
process of making meat from grain as is the pig. The 
exact rations for fattening your pigs will depend upon 
the feeds which you have on hand or which you can 
get. A few suggestions are made here to guide boys 
and girls in feeding the pigs for market. 

Corn should never be fed as the only feed for hogs 
even during the fattening period, as the mineral matter 
which hogs get from corn is not sufficient and corn is 
too low in protein to be an all-around feed. If possible, 
keep the hogs on pasture, alfalfa and clover being 
excellent pasture. Rape pasture is considered good 
succulent feed for growing and fattening pigs. The 
clover and alfalfa are excellent supplements to corn as 
they balance the ration. A ration of corn, ground 
oats, and tankage will give good results in the fatten- 
ing pen. Corn and tankage have given economical 
results when fed together and if these feeds are put in 

*Pig Club Manual. — "Extension Circular 32," University of Illinois. 



RAISING A LITTER OF PIGS 287 

the self-feeder, the hog will balance his own ration and 
make economical gains. Pigs weighing from one hun- 
dred to one hundred and fifty pounds will consume 
about five pounds of grain per day and should gain a 
little more than one pound a day. Larger hogs require 
a little more feed per pound of gain. 

Vaccination. — Pigs should be vaccinated against 
cholera. This disease is among the worst of the animal 
diseases as it claims thousands of hogs each year. Vac- 
cination has proved an efi^ectual check against the dis- 
ease and a competent veterinarian should be gotten to 
do the work. 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. What breeds of hogs are kept on your farm? 

2. What advantage is there in having pigs born in the spring 
rather than in the fall? 

3. Give some rules for feeding the sow before the pigs are 
weaned. 

4. Why is it a wrong practice to feed corn to hogs without other 
feeds ? 

5. When should pigs be weaned? How does the weaning age 
compare with that of lambs? calves? colts? 

6. At what age does your father usually market his hogs? How 
much do they weigh? 

7. Estimate the amount of feed which your father feeds to each 
hog from the time the pig is weaned until marketing time? Cal- 
culate the amount of grain fed per pound of gain made. 

8. When hogs are selling at 16 cents per pound, how much will 
18 head of hogs averaging 260 pounds be worth? If the hogs 
"dressed out" 70%, what would the dressed carcass have to sell 
for to bring as much money as the hogs were worth on foot ? 



XV 

SOME GROUPS OF INSECTS 

Home Work 

Collect insects representing all the classes listed 
below. The specimens should be mounted on card- 
board. If you wish to preserve the larvae, small 
bottles should be purchased at the drug store. Formal- 
dehyde or alcohol may be used to preserve the larvae. 

Insects may be collected by using a sack made of 
mosquito netting and fastened to a wire hoop to which 
a long pole is attached. 

Observe the insects at work to see how they eat their 
food. 

The following insects may be collected : 

1. Butterflies 

2. Houseflies 

3. Chinch bugs 

4. Potato beetles 

5. Grasshoppers 

6. Honeybees 

The insects are representative of the six classes 
which will be described in the following pages. 

Make a table showing the main facts regarding these 
insects, as follows: 

288 



SOME GROUPS OF INSECTS 



289 



Class 



Number of 
Wings 



Character 
OF Wings 



Feeding 
Habit 


Where 
Found 

















Crops 
Damaged 



In what respect are all insects alike? How many 
brilliantly colored insects can you find? What reason 
can you suggest for this coloring? Study the moth 
and the butterfly. The cabbage butterfly and the 
cutworm moth are good specimens for this study. 
How do moths differ from butterflies with regard to 

1. Feelers? 

2. Position of wings when at rest? 

3. Shape of body? 

4. Time of d ay when they fly ? 

5. General color scheme ? 



Facts to be Studied 

What Is an Insect? — Inasmuch as insects destroy 
millions of dollars worth of crops each year, we should 
learn more about them and their methods of doing 
damage. An insect is a little animal, so called because 
its body is made up of sections. The word "insect" 
is derived from a Latin word *'insectare" which means 
to cut into parts. Insects are alike in some respects. 
All insects have six legs and their bodies are divided 
into three parts: the head, the thorax, and the 



290 FARM PROJECTS 

abdomen. There are other pecuHarities of insects 
which should be noted by observation. 

Groups of Insects. — Insects may be classified or 
put into many different groups. They may be grouped 
according to their eating habits into two groups: (i) 
those that chew the food; and (2) those that suck the 
food. More will be said about these two classes in 
Chapter XVI. Again, insects may be classified accord- 
ing to their relation to man as (i) beneficial and (2) 
harmful. The scientist has found that insects which 
have similar wings have similar habits, so he arranges 
all insects into great groups on the basis of their wing 
structure. Before making any study of individual in- 
sects, we should study the main groups as the scientist 
arranges them. Not all the groups of insects will be 
mentioned here, but only the six which include insects 
of great economic importance to the farmer. 

Some insects have straight wmgs and form the group 
called (i) straight-wmged. Such insects usually are 
able to make a noise with their wings. The grass- 
hopper is an example. Every boy and girl is familiar 
with butterflies and moths and knows that the wings 
are covered with a powdery substance which comes 
off very easily. This substance is made up of little 
scales; hence these insects form the group called 
(2) scaly-winged. The house fly and other flies have 
two wings and so are called (3) two-winged. A fourth 
group of insects is made up of the bugs which have 
wings only partially developed. The chinch bug and 



SOME GROUPS OF INSECTS 291 

bedbug are examples. The group is called the (4) half- 
winged insects. The members of another group have 
wings which are very thin and film-like, the wings 
being like silk gauze. These insects are called (5) 
membrane-winged. Bees are good examples. The last 
group is perhaps the most commonly known of all 
the insects. The insects of this group have hard 
shell-like wings, and are called hard-shelled or (6) 
sheath-winged insects. The potato beetle and May 
beetle are good illustrations of this group. 

The Scientific Names. — The scientist does not speak 
of straight-winged and scaly-winged insects, but gives 
the groups Latin names. The system of building up these 
Latin names is based upon a word, "ptera," meaning 
wing. This word is used in all the names. The Latin pre- 
fix added to it usually describes the wings. The prefix 
meaning half is "hemi," so the word meaning half- 
winged is "Hemiptera." *'Di" signifies two, and 
"Diptera" is the name given to two-winged insects. 
*'Coleus" means sheath or shell, thus ''Coleoptera" 
is the name given to beetles or insects with hard, sheath- 
like wings. In like manner, the other words are made 
up, so the list of the six most important groups appears 
as follows: 

Group Classification Representatives 

Straight-winged Orthoptera Grasshoppers and Locusts 

Scaly-winged Lepidoptera Butterflies and Moths 

Two-winged Diptera Flies 

Half-winged Hemiptera Bugs and Lice 

Membrane-winged Hymenoptera Bees 

Sheath-winged Coleoptera Beetles 



292 FARM PROJECTS 

Importance of Knowing the Classes. — If one knows the 
class to which an insect belongs, he may determine the 
Hfe history and habits of the insect, and will be 
able to suggest methods for its control. All insects go 
through certain changes, and their "life cycles" will 
be very interesting and very important to the farmer 
who wishes to control the insects. For instance, the 
butterfly lays its eggs on some food plant, preferably 
the cabbage plant. The egg hatches into a small larva 
or worm, and when this larva is full grown it forms a 
shell-like structure about itself and goes into what we 
call the resting stage or pupa stage. This pupa does 
not hatch in the form it had when it went into its 
resting stage, but after a while it comes out as a full- 
grown, beautifully-colored butterfly. It is very evi- 
dent from this, then, that the pupal stage, or the 
so-called resting stage, was not a resting stage at all, 
for the insect must have been very active in order to 
change form and dress in the two weeks' time allowed 
it by nature. 

Insects which have a complete life history similar to 
this one may be very easily controlled in the "worm" 
stage. It is in this stage that they eat most food, and 
consequently it is in this stage that they do most 
damage to the crops. It is important, then, to know 
when the butterfly-to-be is in the larval stage, and 
where it can be found at that time. The cabbage 
butterfly eats little or nothing as an adult, and there- 
fore does little damage. It is a very difficult task to 



SOME GROUPS OF INSECTS 293 

keep picking the eggs from the cabbage leaf; and it 
is not in the pupal stage that the butterfly does most 
damage, so it is hardly advisable to attack it then. 
Only when it is about to do most damage can it be 
fought effectively. 

The codling moth lays its eggs so that they will 
hatch soon after the apples are in blossom. The little 
worm then crawls into the blossom end of the newly 
formed apple and remains there. It is important that 
the farmer should know this in order to know when to 
spray. If he waits until after the little worm is securely 
imbedded in the apple, or if he sprays before the moth 
appears in the spring to lay its eggs, spraying will be 
useless and no harm will come to the moth. 

The potato beetle has a definite life cycle and it 
should be killed when about to do most damage to 
crops. But we need to know the life history of the 
potato beetle, as well as any other insect, in order to 
know when to strike to do most toward its destruction. 

The majority of insects have four complete stages in 
their life history. The chinch bug, however, does not 
pass through the same stages as the cabbage butterfly 
passes through. It does pass through different stages, 
but they represent a more gradual development. The 
grasshopper does not have these stages, but is just a small 
grasshopper when it first comes into existence. Thus 
we may understand how necessary it is for the farmer 
to know the life and habits of insects in order to be 
able to control them effectively. 



294 FARM PROJECTS 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. Arrange in classes the insects which you know. 

2. Give the life history of the codling moth and potato beetle. 

3. Write a story telling how the codling moth lives and how it 
may be controlled. 

4. What distinctive marks or features belong to all insects.? 

5. Name some insects which chew their food and some which 
suck their food. 

6. The class should arrange an exhibit showing specimens of 
each class of msects studied. 

7. Collect information showing the damage done by insects in 
your community. 

8. What damage was done on your farm last year by insects.'' 

9. What birds in your locality destroy insects.? Are these 
birds harmful to the farmer in any way.? 

10. If ten per cent of the wheat crop in the community were to be 
destroyed by the Hessian fly, what would be the loss in money at 
present prices? 



XVI 
THE CONTROL OF INSECTS 

Home Work 

The home work will consist of practice in controlling 
insects. One insect will be used as an illustration. 
Every boy should arrange with his father to carry out 
the directions for controlling this one insect. There 
are few gardens in which the Colorado potato beetle 
cannot be found almost as soon as the potatoes come 
through the soil. Sometimes it may be found even 
before this time. In order to combat the potato beetle, 
one must know something of its life history. The 
insect is an eating or chewing insect and hence may be 
poisoned with Paris green or arsenate of lead. This 
should be applied with Bordeaux mixture, since the 
Bordeaux mixture will destroy such fungus diseases as 
may be present.* 

A hand spray will work very well for a small area and 
for larger areas a barrel spray should be used. It 
will pay to invest in a spray adapted to the size of the 
potato patch. If no other spray is available, the hand 
spray used for spraying cows against flies or a common 
sprinkling can may be used. It will require much 

*These sprays may be obtained at the drug store. 

295 



296 FARM PROJECTS 

labor, however, to spray many potato vines by these 
methods. By leaving a row unsprayed, a comparison 
may be made which will serve as a good demonstration 
of the value of spraying, but the unsprayed row 
furnishes a breeding place and only adds to the work 
of keeping down the damage done. Perhaps a small 
unsprayed patch somewhere in the community may 
be compared with others that have been sprayed. 

The potato vines should be sprayed thoroughly each 
week. It is important to spray the under sides of the 
leaves as well as the upper sides, since the eggs are 
hatched on the under side of the leaf. This method 
will prevent the newly hatched larvae from getting a 
start on the leaves. If Paris green is used without lime 
or Bordeaux mixture, there is danger of "burning" the 
foliage of the plants. 



Facts to be Studied 

Damage by Insects. — Now that we have learned 
something about the life history and habits of the 
insects and have begun to appreciate the amount of 
damage done annually by them, we need to consider 
the methods by which we can control them. It is 
practically impossible to stop an army of insects after 
they have once started their work of destruction in 
corn fields or on other crops. An army of worms some- 
times destroys a clover field in a very short time. 
Chinch bugs will kill a field of corn in a very short time. 



THE CONTROL OF INSECTS 



297 



We frequently see stalks of corn that are black with 
chinch bugs as high as two feet from the ground. All 
these have come into the corn field in a single day 
or night after the wheat 
in a near-by field has been 
harvested. It is only by 
checking the develop- 
ment of the insects and 
by keeping the insects un- 
der control that farmers 
can hope to destroy them 
effectively. 

Enemies of Insects. — It 
is true that there are 
many natural agencies 
which help to keep the 
insects under control. In- 
sects are subject to dis- 
eases just as people are. 
There is a disease that 
kills chinch bugs in a very wet spring season. Fol- 
lowing a wet spring, we do not look for many chinch 
bugs. Some insects prey upon others, thus killing 
off insects that are harmful to the crops. Birds, too, 
eat the insects. However, we cannot depend upon 
the natural enemies of insects to reduce the amount 
of damage done to our crops. There are some gen- 
eral methods of insect control which have been devised 
by man. 




Fig. 62. — He is as wise as he looks, 
and destroys many enemies of the 
farmer such as mice and insects. 



298 FARM PROJECTS 

Destroying the Home of the Insect. — The best way 
to prevent the damage done by insects is to prevent 
the insect from hatching. Every farmer can make it 
unpleasant and very uncomfortable for the insects by 
cleaning up all breeding places which the insects can 
call home. If their homes are destroyed, they will 
eventually be destroyed. 

It is the duty of every farmer to work industriously 
to keep the farm free from such places, for not only will 
his own crops be damaged but those of other farmers 
also. It is surprising to know the number of insects 
which may be housed in a small space through the 
winter. A hickory nut having a worm hole in it was 
picked up in the winter and cracked and several hun- 
dred chinch bugs were found to be comfortably housed 
in this mansion of many rooms. Many insects feed 
upon weeds during the winter months and these could 
be destroyed if the weeds were not allowed to remain 
where they could be reached. 

Another way to avoid the attacks of the insects is 
to plant a crop at such a time as to escape a large num- 
ber of insects. Late sown fall wheat is generally sup- 
posed to be free from the damage done by the Hessian 
fly. In some instances it is better to plant certain 
crops early so that they will have matured before the 
insect appears. 

Late fall plowing frequently aids very much in 
destroying the insects which live in the soil during the 
winter months. Cutworms pass the winter in the 



THE CONTROL OF INSECTS 



299 



larval stage in the soil and the corn worm passes the 

winter in its pupal stage. Late fall plowing will destroy 

the winter homes of 

these insects and thus 

becomes an effective 

method of combating 

them. Some insects 

lay their eggs in the 

soil in the fall and late 

plowing will expose 

them to the freezing 

weather which will 

hinder them from 

hatching. Thorough 

cultivation of the 

crop and cleanliness 

about the farm will 

effectively eradicate 

the insects. 

Spraying. — The 
most common meth- 
od of fighting the 
insect is the applica- 
tion of a spray to the 
crops affected. Ap- 
ple trees are sprayed 
with different mix- 
tures, depending upon 
bated. Some insects 




Fig. 63. "BoBWHiTE." The Bobwhite in- 
cludes IN HIS DAILY RATION INSECTS AND 
WEED SEED. He IS KNOWN TO EAT I29 
SPECIES OF WEED SEED AND I35 DIFFERENT 
KINDS OF INSECTS. It HAS BEEN ESTIMATED 
THAT A SINGLE BoBWHITE WILL EAT IN ONE 
YEAR FROM SEVEN TO EIGHT POUNDS OF IN- 
SECTS AND TEN TO TWELVE POUNDS OF WEED 

SEEDS. This bird should be protected. 
He is a good friend to the farmer. 



the insect which is to be com- 
attacking fruits and vegetables 



300 FARM PROJECTS 

chew their food, and by spraying the plants with 
poisonous sprays the insects may be killed. Arsenate 
of lead and Paris green are used for this purpose. 
Other types of insects do not chew their food at all, 
but are equipped with little beaks with which they 
pierce the outer covering of the plant and suck their 
food. It would be useless to attempt to poison this 
type by spraying the tree with poison since they do 
not eat the part that can be sprayed. An effective 
method, however, of combating this type of insect is 
to use a mixture of lime and sulphur and spray the 
tree while this insect is at work. This mixture will 
cover the insect and harden, thus smothering it to 
death. 

The first spray is called the poison spray and the 
second is called the contact spray. Another type of spray 
sometimes used is called the repellent spray. This 
spray is made up of substances which have an odor 
which insects do not like, thus keeping them away 
from the crop. An example of this spray is a mixture 
of turpentine and lime, which is sprayed on vegetables 
to drive away cucumber beetle. 

Sprayers. — There are numerous types of apparatus 
for spraying. A good type for the garden or home use 
is called the knapsack sprayer. This apparatus may 
be strapped on the back and is very convenient to 
use. The common type of sprayer used in the orchard 
is the power sprayer which is a sprayer attached to a 
gasoline engine. 



THE CONTROL OF INSECTS 



301 



Life, History, and ControL — If a boy expected to 
have a fight after school he would naturally wish to 
know something about the other boy. He would ask 




Courtesy of the International Harvester Co. 
Fig. 64. Life cycle of a fly 

himself such questions as: Where will he be? When 
will he be there? How will he fight? What will he 
have in his pockets? How big is he? If boys and 
girls wish to fight insects they need to know something 
about their habits and life history. The story of the 



302 FARM PROJECTS 

codling moth is given as an illustration of what you 
should know about an insect. 

The eggs hatch and the worm enters the apple after 
the blossoms fall, when the blossom end of the apple 
is closing, and this is the time when it should be killed. 
If the spraying is delayed for many days, the little 
worm is hidden safely away in the center of the apple. 
It is necessary in this case to know also that there is 
likely to be a second brood or generation within a few 
weeks. If the larvae or white worms escape death, 
they will feed upon the apple for about two weeks until 
they are grown, and then go to the ground to rest for 
about the same length of time before coming out as 
full-grown moths. These moths or adults lay eggs for 
another generation. 

Another illustration is the cutworm. This worm 
lives during the winter in the soil and comes out 
looking for food early in the spring. As summer 
approaches, it goes back into the soil and rarely goes 
deeper than an inch from the surface. Since it is 
beneath the soil, most of the time it is safe from any 
spray that could be used. It does not climb upon the 
plant and eat the leaves, but cuts the stem off near the 
ground. 

The most effective method of avoiding the ravages 
of the cutworm is to place a tin can, with the bottom 
cut out, over the plant to be protected. Mr. Cutworm 
comes along and runs against this tin can. Finding 
that he can make no impression upon this hard surface, 



THE CONTROL OF INSECTS 303 

he proceeds to move around the plant, leaving it alone. 
If this simple fact were known to boys and girls, much 
time, labor, and expense could be saved in protecting 
plants from cutworms. 

Other illustrations may be given by the class to show 
the necessity of knowing the life history in order to 
fight a certain insect. 

Some sprays commonly used are listed below: 

Bordeaux mixture, for fungous diseases. 

Lime sulphur mixture, for scale insects and diseases of apples and 

peaches. 
Lead arsenate (i lb. to 50 gal. water), a poisonous spray used for 

chewing insects such as the currant worm. 
Hellebore (i lb. to 50 gal. water), effective when used on cabbage 

and other garden plants for chewing insects. 

Must be used while fresh. 
Paris green {}4 lb. with 2 lb. lime in 50 gal. water), a poisonous 

spray for chewing insects. 

Write to your state experiment station for bulletins 
giving the spray calendar for your state. 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. Give examples of damage done by insects in your commu- 
nity. 

2. What enemies of insects have you seen .? 

3. What may be done on the farm to destroy the homes or 
hiding places of insects .? 

4. Tell how to destroy the Colorado potato beetle. 

5. How does plowing in the fall affect insects .? 

6. What two general kinds of sprays are used .? 



304 FARM PROJECTS 

7. Why is a knowledge of the hfe history of an insect im- 
portant? 

8. Name the poisons usually used to kill insects. 

9. Determine the cost of spraying an acre of potatoes as many 
times as is necessary to keep the beetle from doing damage. Com- 
pare the production with an acre or a part of an acre that was not 
sprayed. Did the spraying pay.? 

10. Tell what you would do to combat the cabbage worm. 

1 1. Each member of the class should clip pictures of the various 
types of sprayers from catalogues, farm journals, and other ad- 
vertising material. Bring the clippings to school and make up a 
picture notebook on sprayers. What kinds are best adapted to 
your community.? 

12. Name some of the chewmg insects commonly found in your 
community. How would you spray in order to combat them.? 

13. Make up a spray calendar for your home garden, indicating 
the kinds of sprays which are used and the time when they are used. 

14. Where have you seen sucking insects at work.? Can you 
suggest differences between sucking insects and chewing insects 
other than the difference in the way they eat.? 

15. It has been estimated that apple scab alone caused $6,000,- 
000 damage in one year. How many bushels of apples could be 
purchased at the present price for this amount of money.? How 
many schoolhouses such as yours could be erected for this amount.? 

16. If spraying an orchard three times per year increased the 
yield of apples no bushels per acre, what is the value, at current 
prices, of the increase.? If the cost of spraying was $40 per 
acre, what per cent of profit was gained on the investment in 



spraying r 



XVII 
INSECTS OF THE GARDEN 

Home Work 

The following directions are given for home work so 
that the pupil may know how to combat the various 
insects. If any insect is not to be found the treatment 
need not be given. 

The Cutworm. — When the cabbage and tomato 
plants are set in the garden, protect them with old 
tin cans by cutting out both top and bottom of the 
cans, placing them over the plants and pressing them 
down into the soil about two inches. This prevents 
the worm from reaching the stem of the plant because 
the worm does not go very deep into the soil, but 
works just beneath the surface. Heavy paper wrapped 
about the plant when it is set will serve the same pur- 
pose. Cut worms may be poisoned by making a bait 
of one tablespoonful of Paris green and one quart of 
bran, mixed with sweetened water, and spreading it near 
the plants. 

The Cabbage Worm. — The cabbage butterfly deposits 
her eggs on the under side of the cabbage leaf. The 
worms which hatch from these eggs are very injurious, 
since they destroy the leaves. Dusting the cabbage 

305 



3o6 FARM PROJECTS 

leaves with lime or ashes may prevent the eggs from 
hatching, but be sure to dust the under side of the 
leaves. 

Spray the plants with a solution of Paris green, using 
the formula suggested in the chapter on sprays. When 
the cabbage begins to head, white hellebore should be 
used instead of the Paris green, as it is less poisonous and 
not so dangerous to use on a plant which is to be eaten. 

Put some of the worms in a jar, keeping some mois- 
ture and fresh cabbage leaves in the jar, and observe 
the development of the worm and the change into the 
resting stage. Try to catch the butterfly in the act 
of emerging from the pupa or resting stage. 

Cucumber Beetle. — The striped cucumber beetle is a 
familiar enemy in the cucumber or melon patch. The 
beetles feed on stems and leaves, remaining on the 
under side of the leaves. Mix five tablespoonfuls of 
turpentine with a gallon of air-slaked lime. Dust this 
mixture on the vines as soon as they come up, repeating 
the process every few days until the vines are a month 
old, and the beetles should not cause much damage. 
Some gardeners spray the plants with Bordeaux mixture 
and Paris green, which is not only offensive to the insects, 
but is poisonous to the beetles which eat the leaves. 

Colorado Potato Beetle. — Mix Paris green with 
Bordeaux mixture by putting one-half pound of the 
substance in fifty gallons of Bordeaux mixture. Spray 
the potato vines when they are about six inches high, 
repeating as often as is necessary to keep the beetle in 



INSECTS OF THE GARDEN 307 

check. The Bordeaux mixture serves as a repellent to 
the flea beetle and as a fungicide to check the blight 
of potatoes, while the Paris green poisons the potato 
beetle. If the beetles get a start and the spray does 
not check them, the little red larvae and the striped 
adults should be "picked" by knocking them into a 
pan with a small wooden paddle. 

Melon Lice. — Spray the melons or cucumbers where 
the tiny lice are found with a mixture of nicotine 
sulfate, *' Black Leaf 40, " which may be secured at a 
drug store. Be sure to spray the under surfaces of the 
leaves, as the lice work there. This spray is eff^ective for 
other plant lice and should be used when the lice appear 
on the plants. Observe the lady bug or lady beetle as 
it attacks these lice. If the lice do not get started in 
large numbers, the lady bug will hold them in check. 

Tomato Worms. — Watch for the large green worms 
to appear on the tomato plants, and pick them off and 
destroy them. Try to collect some of the worms and 
observe them go into the pupa stage. Place them in a 
jar with some twigs and feed them green leaves. What 
difficulties do you find in growing these worms .f* 



Facts to be Studied 

In order to fight insects effectively, we must know 
their habits. The following paragraphs tell the life 
story of the insects you have been watching for in the 
garden. 



3o8 FARM PROJECTS 

Cutworms. — There are many different kinds of cut- 
worms, but all of them have similar habits. The 
cutworm is the larva or worm stage of a grayish-brown 
moth which flies at night among the trees and shrubs, 
where it deposits its eggs. These eggs hatch and the 
little worms make their way to the ground where they 
begin life among the grasses and clovers, feeding upon 
the tender plants. By autumn, when the frost comes, 
the cutworms are about half grown and they must 
seek shelter from the winter weather, so they find 
cavities in some fence post, or burrow in the soil. 

When the warm days come in the spring, the cut- 
worm comes from its hiding place, a half-grown, hungry 
fellow, ready to devour any green food. He works 
just beneath the soil most of the time, doing most of 
his feeding at night. He eats his way through the 
stem of tender tomato or cabbage plants, cutting off 
the plant as he does so. Instead of making the 
remainder of his meal from the plant which he has just 
cut down, he goes to another plant, treating it as he 
did the first one. The worm becomes full grown in 
early summer and goes into the soil for a resting period 
of about a month, then comes out as a full grown 
adult or moth. About two years pass from the time 
the egg hatches until the worm develops into a full 
grown moth. 

Cabbage Worm. — The green cabbage worm which 
destroys so much cabbage in the garden during the 
summer is the larva of a white butterfly, which is 



INSECTS OF THE GARDEN 309 

very common in the garden. The female has two 
black spots on each front wing. In spring and early 
summer the butterflies deposit their eggs upon the 
under side of the cabbage leaves, where they may be 
found in clusters. They hatch into tiny worms, which 
soon develop into full grown worms about an inch and 
a half in length. After about two weeks in the worm 
stage, they go into the resting stage, in which stage 
they may be found attached to fences or beneath 
rubbish in the garden. In about ten days the insect 
emerges as a fully developed butterfly which again 
lays eggs and the same life cycle is repeated, several 
generations being produced each year. 

Striped Cucumber Beetle. — The yellow and black 
beetle, which comes in great armies to the melon patch, 
is familiar to any boy or girl who has tried to raise 
melons or cucumbers. The beetles feed upon the plants, 
soon destroying the leaves. The female beetles lay 
their eggs in the soil near the roots of the plants, and 
the tiny white worms which hatch feed upon the roots 
of the plant. The worms remain in the soil during the 
resting stage, and reach maturity about six or eight 
weeks after the eggs are laid. The adult beetle hiber- 
nates during the winter ready to come out in the spring 
to devour the young plants. It is interesting to see 
the large numbers which seem to spring up over night. 
If one does not keep careful watch over the young 
plants, the beetles are likely to destroy them before the 
gardener can destroy the beetles. 



3IO FARM PROJECTS 

The Colorado Potato Beetle. — As soon as the potato 
plants appear in the spring, a few brown-striped beetles, 
about one quarter of an inch long, may be seen on the 
leaves. These beetles deposit yellow eggs in clusters 
on the leaves. These eggs soon hatch into tiny red 
larvae which have a wormlike appearance, feeding upon 
the potato plants, destroying the leaves and stems. 
After a few weeks, the little red grubs go to the surface 
of the soil, where they pupate or go into the resting 
stage, and in ten days or two weeks they come out as 
adult beetles. Two or more generations grow each 
year. This beetle is one of the most harmful insects, 
since it can in a short time check the growth of the potato 
crop. It begins its damage early in the life of the plant 
and soon injures the foliage to such an extent that the 
plant ceases to grow. 

Plant Lice. — Most interesting of all is the story of 
the tiny plant lice and their habits. These insects 
suck their food from the foliage by thrusting their 
beaks into the tender tissue. Plant lice may be found 
on sweet pea vines, house plants, melon leaves, apple 
sprouts, and on many other common plants. 

The first generations produce live young and do not 
lay eggs, but increase their number very rapidly. The 
last generation of the year usually lays eggs for the 
next brood. Sometimes the eggs are cared for by 
ants and hatch out in the spring. The ants then care 
for the young lice and help them to get established on 
some plant. The ant sucks a milky fluid from the lice, 



INSECTS OF THE GARDEN 311 

and for this reason plant lice are sometimes called the 
ants' cows. Some lice have wings and some are wing- 
less, the last brood generally having wings. The lady 
bug is an enemy of plant lice. 

From what has been said of the life story of a few 
insects, boys and girls can make observations of other 
insects and become acquainted with their life habits. 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. What is meant by "life history".? 

2. What are the stages in a complete life history, such as that 
of the potato beetle.? 

3. What is the difference in the coloring of the male and 
female cabbage butterfly.? 

4. Tell about other injurious msects to be found in the com- 
munity. 

5. What birds have you noticed eating insects .? 

6. Do you know of any animals that eat insects .? 

7. Why do insects cause more damage in the worm stage than 
in the adult stage.? 

8. Observe the toad to find out how it eats and what it eats. 
Catch a toad and place it in a box with some green moist turf in it. 
Catch some flies and other insects and put them in the box. 

9. What damage to your garden was done by insects during the 
past year? 



XVIII 
THE HONEYBEE 

Home Work 

Bees at Home. — Observe a hive of bees closely to 
determine the answer to this question: How early 
in the morning do bees begin work? Notice the 
blossoms early in the morning to find the early workers. 
At what time of day do you find bees in large numbers 
on the outside of the hive? Can you suggest a reason 
for the bees' settling outside at this time? How late 
in the afternoon or evening do you find bees entering 
the hive? 

Bees at Work. — Observe the bees at work. What 
flowers seem to be favorites with the bees? Time the 
busy little worker as he sucks away at a flower. What 
is the longest time spent on any one flower? Does the 
bee go from flower to flower or does he fly back to the 
hive as soon as he has finished taking nectar from a 
single flower? Do the bees go to the most fragrant 
flowers first? Do you find more bees on the highly 
colored flowers than you find on such flowers as the 
tiny white blossoms of weeds or small fruits? 

Try to find some drones among the bees and com- 
pare them with the workers. Sometimes some bee- 

312 



THE HONEYBEE 313 

keeper in the localiiy has an observation hive; that is, 
one with glass sides. If such a hive can be arranged 
so that the class can see the bees at work in the hive a 
most interesting study may be made of their habits 
within their home. The teacher may be able to secure 
such a hive for the school. Place some bottle corks 
in a pail of water and set it near the hive of bees. Do 
the bees seem to enjoy the water.? Your answer to 
this question will depend upon the time of year. Try 
it in early spring, in summer, and in the fall. 

Write a story telling what you saw as you watched the 
bees at work. 

Facts to be Studied 

Lessons from the Bee. — Boys and girls may learn 
many valuable lessons from the close observation of a 
family of bees. Let us look into the home and see 
how they live in the little rooms which they build and 
which we call cells. Every cell or room is neatly and 
carefully made. So well are they made that we cannot 
tell one room from another as we look at the comb. 
The bees seem to take pride in their home and they do 
many things to keep it in perfect order. 

Only the best of the nectar is good enough for the 
honeybees for they will seek out the sweetest flowers 
from which to gather honey rather than take sugar 
which has been placed within their reach. This honey 
is carefully stored in the cells or storerooms and thus 
provision is made for the winter food supply. What 



314 FARM PROJECTS 

in nature is more wonderful than the pound of honey 
so neatly and carefully packed in cells and sealed so 
not a drop can escape? It is the result of untiring 
industry and foresight on the part of the little bees. 
Let us remember that these little friends are really not 
preparing these packages of delicious honey for our use, 
but for their own family use, and when we take the honey 
from the hive we are robbing the bees of the food 
which they have stored for their own use. 

The Family. — Let us inquire about the family which 
seems to dwell in such complete harmony within the 
home. There is always one mother bee called the 
queen bee, and she has more children than the "old 
woman who lived in a shoe." As in some families, there 
are certain members that do the work while others are 
idle. In the beehive are many hundreds that do no 
work. These are called drones. 

The Queen. — The mother bee is really and truly a 
mother in the hive for she lays the eggs which later 
hatch into workers and drones. When the bees find 
themselves without a queen, disorder is likely to result 
until another queen is reared. The queen bees are 
hatched from eggs which would ordinarily develop into 
workers, the difference being that the eggs are placed 
in larger cells called queen cells. The young are fed 
on "royal jelly," a special food which causes the newly 
hatched bees to develop rapidly and to a larger size 
than ordinary bees. When several hatch and develop, 
all are killed but the one that is strongest, and this one 



THE HONEYBEE 315 

grows into the queen bee. The queen stays in the hive 
except when the bees swarm and then she takes what 
is called her bridal trip. This happens when she is 
about a week old. On this bridal trip the queen bee 
mates with a drone while flying in the air. Her eggs 
may thus be fertilized and she goes back to her hive to 
lay several thousand eggs in the cells of the comb. 

The Workers. — The workers are the female bees that 
gather the honey, build the comb, and take care of 
the home. It is the workers that sting, fight the 
enemies of the family, and gather food for the young 
bees. In size the workers are the smallest bees of the 
group. They are hatched from the fertilized eggs 
which the queen lays in the cells of the comb. The 
workers do not usually lay any eggs, though sometimes 
they do lay a few which may hatch into drones. 
Workers live but a short time; those reared in summer 
do not live much longer than a month because of the 
strenuous work they do, but the winter workers may 
live six months because they have less work. The 
family or colony of bees must be kept up in numbers by 
the queen, and she is able to do this by laying large 
numbers of eggs — two or three thousand in one day. 

The Drones. — The lazy bees that do no work about 
the home are males and are hatched from unfertilized 
eggs deposited by the queen. The only purpose of 
the drone is to mate with the queen. Only one drone 
mates with a queen, so there are always hundreds of 
drones and sometimes thousands in a hive that are of 



3i6 FARM PROJECTS 

no value to the family. They are killed by the females 
or workers, sometimes being killed in the hive and 
carried or dragged outside. The killing of drones takes 
place soon after the bees swarm. The drones are some- 
what larger than the females and may be distinguished 
as they fly through the air by a louder buzz. 

The Bee's Life Story. — The changes which take place 
in the body of an insect have already been described 
and how truly wonderful they are. The bee is an 
insect belonging to the order of Hymenoptera, meaning 
that it has membrane-like wings. The eggs are 
deposited in the cells of the comb in the part of the 
hive set apart for hatching purposes and hatch in 
about three days into tiny white worms or larvae. 
These little worms do not crawl out and hunt food for 
themselves as do the cabbage worms and cutworms. 
So the workers feed the tiny creatures a substance they 
produce, which may be said to correspond to the milk 
which the cow feeds her young. After a few days they 
are fed honey and pollen frorn flowers and the tiny white 
worms grow very rapidly, reaching maturity in about 
a week. The cell is then sealed by the workers and 
the worm or larva goes into the resting stage by spin- 
ning a cocoon about its body, and after a few days it 
changes into the adult form. The workers develop 
into full grown adults in three weeks' time after the 
egg is laid, while the drone requires a few days longer. 
The workers soon leave the hive and go to work for 
the family. 



THE HONEYBEE 317 

What Is Beeswax? — It is indeed a remarkable and 
interesting fact that bees are able to make the comb 
and arrange the cells in such perfect order. The wax 
which makes up the comb is made by a peculiar process 
of digestion and appears in scales on the under side of 
the body of the bee. It requires about twenty-four 
hours to make these scales. The bee goes out and 
fills its stomach with honey or nectar from the flowers, 
then remains quiet for twenty-four hours while these 
scales form; it then uses the waxy scales to make up 
new cells in which to store more honey. 

Nectar or Honey. — Bees are said to make honey from 
the nectar or sweet juice of the flowers. However, 
they really do not make honey, but gather it; for the 
honey is really just the nectar of the flowers after a 
large part of the water has evaporated. The bee 
gathers the nectar by sucking it into her stomach and 
when she has a load she goes to the hive and deposits 
it in the little cells already made. If no cells are 
vacant, she waits until the honey is changed into the 
waxy scales and then makes more cells before going 
out after more honey. The cells are not sealed until 
the honey cures or ripens, which means that the water 
has evaporated from it. How strange and interesting 
it is to know that the bee does all this and yet makes a 
neat package without a trace of the sticky substance on 
the outside of the cap which seals the tiny cells of honey. 

Flowers for Honey. — Bees gather honey from many 
different kinds of blossoms, the honey locust being a 



3i8 FARM PROJECTS 

common tree which furnishes good honey. Perhaps 
the most common honey plant found on the prairies is 
white clover. The blossoms of sweet clover also 
furnish a very excellent quality of white clear honey. 
Buckwheat, which is often planted for the benefit of bees, 
yields a darker honey than does clover. Many common 
weeds produce honey. The flavor and color of honey 
depend upon the kind of plant from which it was taken. 
Farmers who have bees should provide some flowering 
crops throughout the season for them, and should not 
expect a good quality or quantity of honey in the fall if 
the bees have been starved through the summer season. 
The Bee Sting. — Many boys and girls are not very 
friendly with the honeybee, in spite of all its good 
traits and interesting habits, because they are afraid 
of the sting. The idea that bees are not friendly has 
developed from experiences with wild and poor grades 
of bees. The Italian bees are not so wild and ferocious 
as the ordinary bees. Queen bees may be purchased 
from firms handling bees and in this way the colony 
may be improved. The bee has a sack of poison 
connected with the sting, and some of this poison may 
be sent into the blood when a bee stings an individual. 
Some people are affected very little, while others suffer 
greatly from stings. There is little need for alarm if 
the bees are treated well and handled properly, but 
for safety, bee-keepers use a net covering over the 
face and a bee-smoker when robbing the hives or 
handling the bees. 



THE HONEYBEE 319 

Problems and Review Exercises 

1. Describe the different kinds of bees to be found in a hive or 
colony. 

2. How does the queen bee differ in regard to her daily habits 
from the other bees ? 

3. Which bees lay eggs ? 

4. Where are the eggs deposited ? 

5. Describe the life changes which take place as the bee develops 
or grows from the egg to the adult bee. 

6. How does honey from the hive differ from the nectar which 
is in the flower .? 

7. What different colors have you noticed in honey? How 
many different flavors have you tasted.? Which kind of honey do 
you like best.? Why.? 

8. How many farmers in the community keep bees? Do they 
regard it as a profitable side line on the farm ? 

9. What do you do in order to relieve the pain when you are 
stung by a bee ? 

10. Write a short composition on the subject of "How Bees 
Make Honey." 



XIX 

MACHINES 

Home Work 

Make a survey of your home farm to determine the 
kind, amount, and value of the farm machinery. 
Tabulate as follows: 



Implement 


Age 


Condition 


Original Cost 


Estimated 
Present Value 











































How much depreciation should be allowed each year 
for the wear and tear of machinery? This can be 
estimated by dividing the cost of the machine by the 
number of years it lasts. 

Find a strong bar or pole ten feet long. Test your 
ability to lift weights by means of this lever. Place a 
block one foot from the end and use the bar as a pry 
bar or lever. How much can you lift.? Place the 
block two feet from the end. How much can you lift ? 
Make other tests of your strength and the advantage 
afforded by the lever. Study the block and tackle if 



320 



MACHINES 



321 



you have one on the farm. Make one from spools 
and cord. 

Study the plows used on your farm. What types 
of moldboard do you find.? What width of furrow 
does the plow make? How many horses are required 
to draw the sulky plow.? How many acres can one 
man plow in a day with a two-horse walking plow.? 

Study a farm wagon. Ask your father to help you 
name the parts. List all the parts of the wagon as 
follows : 



Parts 


Number 


Purpose 



























Facts to be Studied 

Machines an Aid to the Farmer. — The machine 
enables man to do much that could not be ac- 
complished without its use. One man can lift a 
heavy stone to the top of a high building with the 
aid of a pulley; he can turn the sod of several acres 
of land a day by means of a tractor; he can go long 
distances in a short time by using the automobile. 
Suppose the stone could be lifted only by hand power, 
the sod had to be turned without the aid of a plow or 
even a hoe, and the trip from St. Louis to Chicago could 



322 



FARM PROJECTS 



REVERSIBLE FLOAT 



SIGHT FEED LUBRICATOR 
(SOLE OIL SUPPLY) ~ 



BELL SPEED INDICATOR 

THE "WARNING SIGNAL 
THAT INSURES PBOPER 



SEPARATING DISCS 
CONCAVE BOTTOM BOWL 



ONE PIECE DETACHED SPINDLE 



HIGH BEARING CASE PROTECTING 
GEARS FROM MILK AND WATER 



HELICAL TOOTH SPUR GEAR 
AND PINION 



BRONZE REVtRSlBLt WORM WHEEL 



OPEN SANITARY BASF 



SEAMLESS ANTI-SPLASH 
SANITARY SUPPLY CAN 



SANITARY FAUCET 
EXTRA HEAVY TINWARE 



SIMPLE CREAM SCREW 
ADJUSTMENT 




Courtesy of De Laval Cream Separator Co. 

FlC. 65. A MOST USEFUL MACHINE ON THE FARM IS THE CREAM SEPARATOR WHICH 
ENABLES THE FARMER TO SELL CREAM AND SAVE THE SKIMMEU MILK FOR FEED. 



MACHINES 323 

be made only on foot. What a slow kind of life we 
should experience. Remember that most of the modern 
machines have come into general use only lately. Find 
the dates when the various farm machines were invented. 

The basic principles of the machine have been known 
for centuries. While man has not always had the 
advantage of the modern reaper and the modern engine, 
yet he has, in some measure, taken advantage of the 
principles involved in the make-up of these machines. 
The first implement which can be said to have been a 
plow was the flint rock tied to a stick and used by the 
Indians. To be sure it did not look much like our 
modern plow but the principle was the same. 

Classes of Farm Implements. — Farm implements 
may be grouped under various headings according to 
their use on the farm. The following classes should be 
studied: tillage m.achinery, seeding machines, culti- 
vating machines, fertilizing machines, harvesting ma- 
chines, cutters and threshers, stationary equipment, 
and tools. 

The Plow.— The main implement belonging to the 
first class is the plow. There are two general classes 
of plows, the moldboard and the disk, the moldboard 
type being the more common of the two. The disk 
plow is used in deep tilling where a double plow is 
needed. There are several types of moldboards rang- 
ing from the straight sod moldboard to the short-curve 
stubble moldboard. Pupils should report on the 
plows used on the various farms in the district. It is 



324 FARM PROJECTS 

very likely that the boys have never noticed any 
differences in the shapes of the plows. 

Land tillage in America probably began when the 
Indians used the wooden hoe or the flint hoe which 
was followed by the wooden plow with a wooden 
moldboard. 

The gang plow is a double plow and is built as a 
riding plow. The modern tractor plows sometimes 
have as many as twelve plows working at once, all 
drawn by one engine. In large fields the tractor does 
excellent work and is a good investment. 

The Harrow. — The purpose of the plow is to break 
the soil so that it can be more thoroughly prepared for 
the seed bed; but the harrow is the principal implement 
used in the preparation of the soil and its use is espe- 
cially necessary in preparing a good mulch on the newly 
plowed ground in order to retain the moisture. The 
harrow need not be used immediately after fall plow- 
ing, but when corn ground is being prepared in the 
spring the harrow should be used as soon as the ground 
is broken. There are various kinds of harrows, the 
most common being the spiked-tooth harrow. The 
disk harrow is frequently called a disk. It is composed 
of a series of disks and pulverizes the soil more 
efficiently and to greater depth than the tooth harrow. 
There is a harrow called the spring-tooth which is 
not so common as the other two. 

The Roller. — The roller is used for the purpose of 
packing the soil after it has been harrowed or in some 



MACHINES 325 

cases after it has been planted. It is very simple in 
construction. Sometimes it is made by putting an 
axle in each end of a cylindrical log and fixing a double- 
tree and tongue. 

Types of Cultivators. — There is not space here to 
say something about each class of farm machine, but 
some attention should be given to the different types 
of cultivators. There are three main types of corn 
cultivators: the disk, the shovel, and the surface 
cultivator. The relative merits of these types are 
disputed by farmers and in some communities one 
kind will be found while in another the other types will 
prevail. There are certain outstanding features and 
advantages of each type that should be recognized. 
The disk cultivator can be used while the corn is yet 
very small to stir the ground thoroughly. It leaves the 
soil in good condition. The shovel cultivators stir 
the soil to greater depths and can be used successfully 
where this is necessary. The surface cultivator should 
be used where only a top mulch is needed. It is the best 
type for the later plowing of corn as all weeds can be 
cut by the surface cultivator and a mulch can be 
produced that will hold the moisture. At the same 
time, the soil is left in good condition and the surface 
can be made level. The condition of the soil, the 
weeds, the season, and the stage of the growth of the 
corn are all factors which must be considered in choos- 
ing a cultivator. Whatever kind is used should be 
so operated that it will leave a fine mulch of soil and 



326 FARM PROJECTS 

destroy all weeds. Good cultivation depends largely 
upon correct adjustment of the cultivator rather than 
upon the type of the cultivator used. The writer has 
seen a field of corn almost ruined because the cultiva- 
tor was not properly adjusted the first time the corn 
was plowed. Sometimes the harrow is used as the 
cultivator, corn being frequently cultivated for the 
first time by the harrow. Wheat is sometimes 
harrowed and alfalfa is frequently disked or harrowed 
after the first cutting in the spring. Many types of 
garden cultivators have been devised. 

Care of Machinery. — Some farmers allow their 
machines to remain out in the open weather all winter. 
Others build substantial sheds for the housing of their 
machinery just as they build barns for their cattle. 
Pupils should find the cost of constructing a machine 
shed large enough to shelter the machinery of the 
average farm. Will it pay to house the machinery .f' 

It is not an uncommon sight to see plows and even 
binders standing out in the field all winter long. All 
iron is subject to decomposition or rusting when the 
moisture and air come in contact with it. Plows should 
be painted in the fall with a heavy oil or grease to keep 
the moisture and air from rusting them. If they 
are put under shelter and painted they will be as bright 
in the spring as they were in the fall; but if allowed to 
rust all through the winter, they will be unfit for use in 
the spring. Much time will be consumed in ridding the 
moldboard of the rust in order to make it turn the soil. 



MACHINES 327 

Make a survey of the tool sheds of your own homes. 
How many bright saws, hammers, bits, squares, and 
planes are found ? How many neatly kept tool chests 
do you find ? Are the tools arranged in an orderly way 
in the tool shed ? Do you know where to find certain 
tools when they are needed? Is the spade in its place? 
Will it cut the sod when necessary or is it dull and 
rusty? These are some of the suggestive questions 
which every boy and girl may ask about his or her 
home. Would it not be interesting to write a story 
giving a description of the tool shed at home? Boys 
and girls may be of much service in helping to con- 
serve the wealth of the nation by taking care of the 
tool sheds at home. 

A good old man more than seventy-five years of 
age came out into the field to do some work one morn- 
ing. He had an object under his arm which was 
wrapped securely in an old newspaper. We wondered 
what it could be. When he was ready to go to work, 
the boys saw him carefully take the paper from this 
object and fold the paper for further use. He showed 
us a clean, bright, well-oiled, and well-preserved spade. 
For more than thirty years he had used this spade but 
it had never been allowed to rust. It had never been 
put away in a hurry with the wet soil clinging to it. 
The man had found it to his advantage to have the spade 
always ready and when he was through using it he 
cleaned it before he left the field and again wrapped 
it in paper, for he had to ride on a train to get home. 



328 FARM PROJECTS 

There is a lesson in this incident for every boy and girl 
who is in the habit of using tools and leaving them in 
the most convenient place without cleaning them. It 
pays to take care of machinery just as it pays to take 
care of the animals on the farm. The tools do not 
need food but they will respond as quickly as living 
beings to good care. Good care tells in the life of the 
person. It will tell in the bank account of the farmer. 



Review Exercises and Proble 



MS 



1. What is the total value of machinery on all farms studied 
by the class.? 

2. Are there fewer horses in your community than there were 
five years ago ? 

3. Give illustrations of the inclined plane and of the lever. 

4. Give five reasons for building a machine shed. 

5. How many board feet of lumber are required to make the 
sides of a machine shed forty feet long, twenty feet wide, and 
twelve feet high if the siding is made of plain one-inch boards? 
What would it cost.? 

6. Write a story telling what you saw in your tool shed when 
you opened the door. 

7. What advantages do tractors have over horses.? What dis- 
advantages.? 

8. What kinds of cultivators are used in your community.? 
Why is this kind preferred to other kinds.? 

9. Secure catalogues giving prices of machinery and make a list 
of machinery needed on your farm with the cost price of each if it 
were purchased at the present time. What would be the cost of 
the necessary machinery for the farm.? 



XX 

A STUDY OF THE GAS ENGINE 

Home Work 

How many farmers in your community own gas 
engines? Make a list of all the farm operations for 
which the gas engine is used. What kinds of engines 
are used on the farms in your community? Tabulate 
the results as follows: 





STATIONARY ENGINES 




Total Number 
IN Community 


Number of 
Cylinders 


Name of 
Make 


Horse 
Power 


Cost 









































Make a similar list of the tractors and automobiles. 

Study a stationary engine to locate the following 
parts: cylinder, piston, spark plug, crank shaft, con- 
necting rods, valves, push rods, flywheel. If possible, 
have some one help you take the engine apart. Answer 
the following questions about your engine or the engine 
of your neighbor: 

329 



330 FARM PROJECTS 

1. How many cylinders has it? What is the diameter of each? 
If you cannot take the cyhnder head off to examine the parts, oh- 
tain a catalogue showing a photograph of an engine and its parts. 

2. How many piston rings on each piston ? 

3. What kmd of spark plugs, if any, do you use? 

4. What is the diameter of the flywheel ? 

5. How many revolutions per minute should the flywheel make 
when running at ordinary speed ? 

6. What kind of fuel is used ? 

7. How much fuel is required per hour when the engine is doing 
heavy work ? 

Facts to be Studied 

The gas engine is rapidly becoming a universally 
used machine. In many sections of the country it is 
taking, in the form of tractors, the place of horses on 
the farm. A very large percentage of farmers use the 
gas engine for some purpose though they may not own 
a tractor or an automobile, both of which depend upon 
the gas engine as the source of power. 

The name gas engine is commonly applied to any 
engine which obtains its power by internal combustion; 
that is, by exploding gases within itself. The gas which 
is exploded or burned is called the engine's fuel. 

The uses to which a gas engine may be put on the 
farm are so numerous and varied that a complete list 
would be too long to be included in this lesson. 

The tractor and automobile are the two principal 
machines which depend upon the gas engine for power. 
The stationary engine may be used for such purposes 



A STUDY OF THE GAS ENGINE 331 

as operating the pump, the feed grinder, the wood 
saw, the cream separator, the washer, the churn, and 
other devices which can be operated by the pulley. 
The tractor has been adapted to a great many differ- 
ent operations, from mowing lawns to threshing 
grain. Many kinds of machines have been adapted to 
its use. 

In order to obtain energy or power from the horse 
or other animal, some kind of feed is necessary. In 
order to obtain power from the gas engine, feed or 
fuel is necessary. Gasoline is used almost exclusively 
in automobile engines. The tractor is operated, as a 
rule, by the use of a heavier fuel than gasoline, usually 
kerosene. Whatever fuel is used must be of a kind that 
is easily evaporated and must be inflammable when 
mixed with air. Kerosene is much cheaper than gaso- 
line, hence its use is common in engines which are 
adapted to its use. 

Every boy on the farm is familiar with the intense 
heat of the fire box of a steam engine at threshing 
time. It is necessary to change the water into steam 
by intense heat. In the gas engine the fuel, whatever 
it be, is changed to gas by evaporation. For this 
reason the engine must be hot in order to get the best 
results; not hot enough, however, to boil the water 
in the cooling tank. The gas enters a chamber called 
the cylinder and is exploded by an electric spark from 
the spark plug. When gas explodes it expands. 
Intense heat is created by the explosion. The expan- 



332 



FARM PROJECTS 




o 



A STUDY OF THE GAS ENGINE 333 

sion caused by the explosion causes the piston to move, 
which, in turn, turns the crank shaft. The illustra- 
tion shows these different parts and their relation to 
each other. It is this burning of gas that is called 
internal combustion. 

Some Parts of the Gas Engine. — The cylinder is the 
chamber in which the explosion of gas takes place, the 
piston moving up and down in the cylinder. The walls 
of the cylinder are perfectly smooth so as to prevent 
unnecessary friction and to allow the piston to fit 
closely in the cylinder chamber. 

The piston is fitted with one or more rings which 
fit in grooves about it like a spring. The rings are 
cut in one place and are always springing or pressing 
outward against the cylinder wall, thus making it 
impossible for the gas or oil to escape along the sides of 
the pistons. 

The spark plug is a small piece of apparatus, but it 
is most important. Nearly everyone is familiar with 
the peculiar "chug chug" of the automobile or tractor 
when it is "missing," a trouble which is due in all 
probability to the spark plug. The spark plug is the 
match which ignites or fires the gas in the cylinder. 
An electric current passing through the plug jumps 
from one point to the other, causing a spark. One can 
see this spark by placing the metallic part of a screw- 
driver on the engine and bringing it close to the plug 
while the engine is working, causing the spark to jump 
from the plug to the screwdriver. If the spark plug 



334 FARM PROJECTS 

becomes dirty or is broken, the spark is either not 
formed or is not '^ahve" and does not fire the gas. In this 
case there is a loss of power and the engine is said to 
*'miss." The engine must be timed so that the spark 
fires the gas at the instant when the piston is in proper 
position. Sometimes, for various reasons, spark plugs 
get very hot and the porcelain part is then likely to 
break. 

The crank shaft is a shaft to which the pistons are 
connected by rods. The shaft really has one or more 
cranks on it to which the rods are fastened. As the 
pistons move up and down, the shaft is forced to turn, 
changing the up-and-down motion of the pistons to a 
rotary motion of the crank shaft, thus turning a fly- 
wheel. This change in motion is similar to the change 
in motion which takes place when the pedals on a child's 
velocipede are pushed back and forth. This causes the 
shaft to turn, and the shaft causes the wheels to turn. 
The connecting rod is fastened to the piston by a 
piston pin. The rod moves to and fro as the hand 
moves at the wrist, which gives this pin the name of the 
wrist pm. 

Cylinders and pistons get very hot as the latter 
move back and forth in the former and must be 
cooled continually or the cylinder walls would become 
overheated in a short time. A jacket called a water 
jacket is placed around each cylinder and water circu- 
lates through these jackets to cool the walls. In the 
winter, when the engine is not in action, this water 



A STUDY OF THE GAS ENGINE 335 

must be drained off or it will freeze and burst the 
jacket walls. 

There must be an entrance through which gas may 
get into the cylinder and an opening for the burned 
gases to escape. These openings are closed by means 
of valves. The valve consists of a piece of metal which 
is ground to fit the opening exactly. These valves are 
so connected with the cam shaft that they open and 
close at the proper time. If a valve becomes worn so 
that the gases leak out and the power is reduced, it must 
be ground. When it fits into the openings exactly it 
is said to "seat." The valves are usually connected 
with the shaft by means of long push rods. When the 
shaft turns, it moves the push rods up and down, thus 
opening the valves. The valves close by means of 
strong springs which force them back into position. 

It is obvious that the many parts of an engine, 
working rapidly and becoming heated, must have 
plenty of oil or the parts would soon be ruined by the 
friction. The crank shaft is in a large iron case called 
the crank case which should always contain oil. The 
revolving shaft picks up the oil and splashes it over the 
parts. An oil pump is constantly pumping the oil to 
all parts of the engine. If the oil becomes low, the 
pistons heat and stick in the cylinders, causing the 
engine to stop running. 

h flywheel is attached to the shaft or axle and thus 
power is given to a belt which runs on a pulley attached 
to the flywheel. 



336 FARM PROJECTS 

If one part of an engine can be said to be more 
important than another, that part is undoubtedly the 
carburetor, which is of very intricate construction and 
may cause much engine trouble. It is the part in 
which the air and gas are mixed and taken into the 
cylinders and might well be called the "mixer." Every 
boy knows that the coal and wood in the stove will not 
burn satisfactorily unless they get air which is admitted 
to the fire box through the openings in the stove called 
draughts. The air is mixed with the gas in the mixer 
or carburetor and the gas explodes readily when the 
spark ignites it in the cylinder. There are many types 
or makes of carburetors, but the principle is the same. 
Gas is taken in through the small opening controlled 
by a valve; air is then admitted to the chamber and 
the mixture passes on to the cylinder chamber where it 
is fired or exploded by the spark of electricity. 

The gasoline or engine fuel goes into the mixing 
chamber through a needle-sized opening and really 
sprays into the chamber. The fact that it sprays into 
the chamber causes it to mix with the air and the heat 
of the running engine causes rapid evaporation, or 
change to gaseous vapor, just as heat causes water to 
evaporate and form steam. Carburetor trouble is not 
easy to remedy and it is best not to meddle with the 
carburetor. If it is causing difficulty, have an expert 
mechanic adjust it. 

Lubrication. — Lubrication means oiling. The pur- 
pose of oiling is to prevent wear. When the machinery 



A STUDY OF THE GAS ENGINE 



337 




338 FARM PROJECTS 

is not well oiled, the metal surfaces come together and 
wear very rapidly. Many repair bills may be saved 
by using a proper amount of oil. The parts which do 
most work and bear the greatest strain need most 
oil. A few minutes of wear without oil will cause 
more damage than weeks of wear with plenty of oil 
present. There are two general types of oil: hard 
oil or cup grease, and ordinary liquid oil. The hard 
oil is placed in cups which are screwed into an opening 
leading to a part which needs oil. As the grease is 
used up the cup is screwed in. There are usually 
drip cups on all stationary engines from which oil 
drips continually while the engine is in action. These 
cups should be kept full of a good grade of lubricat- 
ing oil. 

Summary. — There are many other parts with which 
boys and girls will become familiar as they study the 
gas engine but the above description tells us about 
the main construction of the gas engine. It is an 
efficient machine and develops great power for the use 
of the farmer and his wife and may be called a self- 
feeding, self-working power plant. The fuel flows in 
through the carburetor, is mixed with air in the mixing 
chamber, from which it is taken into the cylinders. 
It is there exploded by the electric spark. The expand- 
ing gas forces the pistons to move, thus causing the 
crank shaft to rotate. The shaft distributes the energy 
•or power to the flywheel, which is attached to other 
machines by means of a belt. 



A STUDY OF THE GAS ENGINE 339 

Review Questions 

1. Name the parts of the gas engine which you know at sight. 

2. Why should the cyhnder walls be perfectly smooth ? 

3 . What is the purpose of piston rings ? 

4. What is the crank shaft? 

5. Why should an abundance of lubricating oil be used at all 
times? 

6. Explain the purpose of the carburetor. 

7. What might cause spark plug trouble? 

8. The pulley on the flywheel of a gas engine is lo" in diameter. 
A belt extends from this pulley to a 5" pulley on a cream separator. 
Which makes the larger number of revolutions per minute? In 
what proportion is the speed of the larger to that of the smaller? 

9. Explain how you would lower the speed on a pump jack by 
changing the size of the pulleys. 

10. What are the benefits to be gained from the use of a gas 
engine on your farm ? 



XXI 
THE AUTOMOBILE 

Home Work 

Make a survey of the community to determine the 
number and kinds of automobiles owned by the farmers. 
Tabulate the results as follows: 



Make of 
Car 


Number of 
Cylinders 


Color 


List Price 


Model or 
Year 


H.P. 



















































Study your car at home, locating the parts discussed 
in the following pages. Obtain an illustrated cata.- 
logue showing the parts of your car and make clippings 
of the illustrations which show the parts to be studied. 

If you do not have a car at home, spend some time 
with some one in the class who has one. Perhaps a 
farmer will be willing to stop at the schoolhouse and 
explain the parts to the class. Ask the owner of an 
•automobile to help you answer the following questions: 

I. Does the motor run at higher speed when the gear is in low 
or when it is in high .? 

340 



THE AUTOMOBILE 341 

2. What is the purpose of putting the gear in low to start the 
car? 

3. What mileage is obtained from the various makes of tires 
commonly used in your locality ? 

4. What is the difference between cord tires and fabric tires? 
Which cost more? 

5. Why is loose sand dangerous as a roadbed for automobiles ? 

6. What is the highest speed record on a speedway? Who 
holds this record? 

Facts to be Studied 

Importance. — No business has experienced such 
rapid growth and development as the automobile 
industry. The manufacture of automobiles represents 
a high point in factory possibilities. A large number 
of automobiles are to be found on the market and new 
ones are appearing each season. Farmers use this 
means of travel in all parts of the United States. It is 
becoming as truly necessary for the farm boy to know 
how to operate and care for automobiles as it was for 
the farm boy of earlier years to know how to care for 
horses and different types of vehicles. 

A Self-Propeller. — The lesson on the gas engine 
taught us some of the elementary principles of the 
engine. The automobile is a self-propelling vehicle 
inasmuch as its source of power is an engine, usually 
a gas engine. While there are many types of engines, 
the principles are the same in all. In this lesson we 
shall study the parts of the automobile in the same way 
that we studied the parts of the gas engine. 



342 



FARM PROJECTS 




o 



THE AUTOMOBILE 343 

Chassis and Body. — The word chassis means a frame. 
The chassis (pronounced sha' st) of the automobile is 
the frame with the wheels and machinery, the other 
part being the body. Sometimes the parts of the 
chassis are made in different factories and put together 
in another factory by a different manufacturing 
concern. Bodies were originally made of wood and 
were rather heavy and cumbersome, but were durable. 
Most bodies are now made of metallic substances and 
are much lighter in weight than the wood bodies. 

Parts. — The main parts of the stationary engine have 
been discussed in another lesson but some words which 
are used to name various parts of the automobile should 
be learned. The clutch is that part by means of which 
the drive shaft is connected and disconnected with 
the engine. If the wheels were permanently connected 
with the engine by means of the drive shaft, the car 
would necessarily move when the engine was started. 
To prevent this, there is a break in the shaft which 
allows the engine to "run idle," that is, to run without 
moving the car. The clutch then connects the fly- 
wheel of the engine to the driving gear, accomplishing 
the same result that the belt does when it connects the 
flywheel of the engine to a thresher or other machine. 

The transmission gears which engage or connect the 
engine and drive shaft are moved back and forth by a 
shifting lever. There are usually four different gears, 
first or low, second, third or high, and reverse, which 
means that there must be four connecting gears. When 



344 FARM PROJECTS 

the lever is in "neutral" none of the gears are engaged 
or connected to the driving shaft and the automobile 
remains stationary even though the engine is running. 
The transmission is just beneath the footboard imme- 
diately behind the engine in most cars. 

The engine or crank shaft must be connected with 
the wheels in order to move the car. The drive shaft 
extends to the rear axle where it is attached to the 
''differential'' which is a device located in the center 
of the rear axle to equalize the power applied to each 
of the rear wheels. It allows one wheel to travel 
faster than the other when the automobile is rounding 
a corner or curve. 

Much depends upon the rear axle or the part to 
which the wheels are attached. Some axles are called 
"full-floating" because they float or turn in oil and 
bear none of the weight of the car, this weight being 
borne by the housing or casing about the axle. Axles 
on buggies must be stationary and bear the entire 
weight of the load. The "full-floating" axle turns the 
wheels because it is attached to the driving gear and 
to each wheel. The "part-floating" axle is another 
type and bears a part of the weight of the car. 

Much depends upon the steering wheel and the 
gears which it turns, as every move made by the car 
is directed by the steering wheel. It should be kept 
well oiled and properly adjusted at all times. 

Everyone who has had experience with a car knows 
the purpose of a radiator and the troubles it causes. 



THE AUTOMOBILE 345 

It should be kept full of water at all times when the 
car is running as the water must circulate through the 
jackets about the cylinders to keep them from becoming 
too hot. There is usually a force pump on the engine 
to cause the water to circulate freely. The water is 
taken into the jackets from the lower part of the 
radiator and returns to the radiator through the hose 
or tube leading into the top part of the radiator, cool- 
ing again as it flows downward through the radiator. 

Without a cooling system the cylinders would become 
hot and the pistons would stick when the lubricating 
oil burned. Overheating of the engine indicates that 
something is out of order, and the first place to look for 
a defect is the radiator as the water may be low or 
circulation may be stopped by some obstruction. The 
fan which is placed between the radiator and the engine 
draws the air through the radiator and causes the 
water to cool quickly. If the fan belt becomes loose 
or the blades of the fan become bent, the v/ater does 
not cool readily and the engine heats. 

Freezing. — In cold weather, water will freeze in the 
radiator even when the engine is running. If the 
temperature is below freezing, an anti-freezing solu- 
tion should be used, the one most commonly used being 
a mixture of wood alcohol and water. A mixture of 
one part of each will not freeze at a temperature above 
30° below zero. The alcohol evaporates rapidly when 
the engine becomes heated, so the radiator should be 
examined frequently to make sure that plenty of alcohol 



346 FARM PROJECTS 

remains. The author has found that alcohol evapo- 
rates less rapidly if a quart of ordinary cylinder oil is 
poured into the radiator. When the engine stops, the 
heavy oil comes to the top and prevents the evaporation 
of the alcohol. Make sure to prevent freezing, because 
a radiator which has burst is not only annoying in 
many ways, but is also likely to cause overheating at a 
time when the driver is not looking for trouble. Most 
drivers cover the radiator and the hood with a water- 
proof blanket during cold weather. This retains the 
heat and insures better service. However, the radia- 
tor should not be completely covered, or the engine 
will overheat because the solution in the radiator will 
soon boil. A space in the center of the radiator should 
be exposed. 

The Storage Battery. — The storage battery is the 
source of much difficulty because so few people under- 
stand it. The storage battery consists of cells or 
jars of chemicals in which electricity is "made." 
Another means of generating or "making" electricity 
is by means of a dynamo, magneto, or other type of 
mechanical generator, and most cars are equipped 
with such generators. The electricity flows through 
copper wires attached to the storage battery, to the 
spark plugs where the current is broken at the points 
on the plug. It jumps across the gap, causing a spark 
as it does so. It is this spark that fires the gas or 
fuel in the cylinder, just as a match fires or kindles the 
fuel in the stove. 



THE AUTOMOBILE 347 

The mechanical generators on the engine cause an 
electric current to flow into the storehouse or storage 
battery when the engine is running and the battery is 
then said to be "on charge." It is really storing up 
electricity which it can send to the spark plugs to fire 
the gas. 

Care of the Battery. — The battery is an expensive 
part of the automobile and should receive careful atten- 
tion as many things may happen to cause it to lose its 
power. The liquid in the glass jars must be kept above 
the edges of the plates within the jars by adding only 
clear rain water or distilled water; that is, water that 
contains no mineral matter. In cold weather the 
battery should not be allowed to "run down" as it will 
freeze. Batteries that are fully charged will not freeze 
in our coldest temperatures. It is a good plan to have 
the battery tested and filled every two weeks at the 
garage or battery station. 



Some Common Causes of Car Troubles 

When farmers drove horses on the road it was not 
a frequent occurrence, though one which did happen 
sometimes, to see a balky horse stand in the road refus- 
ing to do the bidding of his master. But since the 
car has become a common means of travel it is not an 
uncommon occurrence to see some one "stalled" 
along the roadside. Many hours of waiting and much 
hard work might be saved to the autoist if more atten- 



348 FARM PROJECTS 

tion were given to details, and if each driver studied 
the make-up of his car. A few of the common difficul- 
ties will be discussed here for the purpose of causing 
boys and girls to observe more closely the operations 
of the automobile. Often a large repair bill can be 
avoided by careful observation. 

The Engine Will Not Start. — The feeling which a balky 
car arouses in the driver is a well-known experience, but 
often the cause of the difficulty may be easily located 
and remedied. Some causes are as follows: 

1. The carburetor is flooded and should be drained of excess 
gasoline. 

2. The supply of gas may be low or entirely used. Many ama- 
teur drivers have become overheated from crankmg a car on a 
hot day only to find the gas tank empty. 

3. Dirt or other material may be obstructing the opening to the 
carburetor, permitting only a scant supply of gas. This is fre- 
quently true when the engine *' spits." 

4. The wiring may be disconnected at some point, preventing 
the spark or fire. 

5. The coil and other wiring may be wet from the rain. 

The Starter Will Not Turn the Engine. — Sometimes 
the starter fails to turn the engine. In such a case the 
battery may be weak and the engine may be started 
with the hand crank. A long run will probably re- 
charge the battery, but if the car is used for short drives 
only, the battery should be recharged at the garage. 
The battery and starter may be in good shape and yet 
not turn the engine. If the engine cannot be turned 



THE AUTOMOBILE 349 

by hand, the trouble is probably in the cylinders. 
The pistons may be lodged because of overheating. 
In cold weather it sometimes happens that the engine 
becomes locked and cannot be turned by hand or 
starter. The water pump may be frozen in this case, 
or it is likely that the starter gear or wheel has lodged 
or frozen to the flywheel. If this is true, shift the 
gear to third or high speed and push the car backward 
by hand. This motion will dislodge the starter from 
the flywheel and the engine may be turned. 

Missing. — Missing may be caused by various defects. 
The sound of the engine that is chugging along on one 
or two cylinders when it should be using four or six 
is a familiar one. The explosions are not regularly 
placed, and the engine "misses" due to the fact that 
the fuel or gas in one or more cylinders is not fired by 
the electric spark. One wire leading to the spark plugs 
may be disconnected or broken or the points of the spark 
plug may be so far apart that the current cannot jump 
across. The car should not be driven far while the 
cylinders are failing to fire. Missing may be due to a 
dirty or broken spark plug, a weak mixture of gas, 
overheating of the engine, or other causes. The cause 
should be located before the car is driven very far. 

Knocks. — Knocks in the engine may be due to many 
difl^erent causes, but whatever the cause, it should be 
corrected. Frequently a motor knocks when it is 
pulling up hill on high and in such a case the spark 
should be retarded. The tappets frequently become 



350 FARM PROJECTS 

loose and cause a clicking sound. Loose bearings 
cause a knocking sound and should be taken up or the 
shafts will soon be worn. Carbon deposits in the 
cylinders are the result of too much oil or the use of a 
poor grade of oil. This condition causes knocking and 
is more likely to occur when the pistons are worn, thus 
allowing oil to get by the pistons in large quantities 
and be burned in the upper portion of the cylinder. 

Tire Trouble. — Perhaps no other difficulty causes 
the motorist so much annoyance as "tire trouble." 
Most cars are equipped with pneumatic tires, that is 
tires that are filled with air, and the tire upkeep is an 
expensive item in the maintenance of an automobile. 
There are several preparations on the market at present 
which take the place of the inner tube and air. The 
casing is filled with a rubber-like substance which gives 
the tire about the same hardness or fullness as if it 
were pumped to seventy-pound pressure. The tire 
which is filled in this way can be used until it is worn 
out and there are no punctures and no blow-outs. 
There are advantages in both methods of filling tires. 
Some electrics and trucks are equipped with solid rubber 
tires but the solid tire causes much more rapid deprecia- 
tion of the car than air-filled tires. 

The most common tire trouble is the puncture of 
the inner tube caused by a thorn, a tack, a wire, a 
splinter, or other sharp object. The car should be 
stopped as soon as the tire begins to lose air, other- 
wise the rim of the wheel will soon cut the tire. Usuallv 



THE AUTOMOBILE 351 

the puncture can be mended with a patch and the tire 
can be replaced at once. 

A blow-out is a more serious difficulty. The out- 
side casing breaks or blows out, leaving a rent in the 
rubber and fabric as well as in the inner tube. If the 
tire is an old one, it is usually economy to sell it as 
junk; but if the tread is not worn much, it may be 
vulcanized. Tires may be retreaded for about one 
half of the original cost of the tires. There are different 
opinions as to the economy of retreading or half-soling 
the worn tire. 

Tire trouble cannot be avoided, but it may be 
lessened by proper attention. Tires should never be 
run without sufficient air in them. From 50 to 90 
pounds of pressure is to be recommended, depending 
upon the size of the tire. Remember that tires become 
very hot in the summer time. Heating increases the 
pressure of air by expansion and if one were to pump 
small tires to 70 pounds on a hot summer day and then 
take a long trip, the increased expansion due to the 
heat would be likely to cause a blow-out. If the wheels 
get out of line, the tires will be cut in a few days because 
they do not run "true." 

Review Exercises and Problems 

1. In what way can an automobile be said to be self-propelled.? 

2. What is the meaning of the w^ord "chassis"? 

3. What happens when the clutch is "let in"? 

4. What is meant by throwing the gear into "neutral"? 



352 FARM PROJECTS 

5. What causes the water to cool so rapidly in the radiator? 

6. Can you tell the difference between a full-floating and a part- 
floating axle? 

7. What is the purpose of the storage battery in the car? 

8. What causes the iron jackets and radiator walls to burst 
when the water in them freezes? 

9. List all the causes you can which might prevent the engine 
from starting when it is cranked. 

10. What is meant by "missing"? 

11. Tell how to mend a puncture. 

12. What difficulties have you had with your car recently? 
Describe just what you did to correct the trouble. 

13. Find out if possible what the length of life of several cars has 
been in your community, and the amount of money expended for 
each. Determine the yearly cost of owning and operating a Ford 
car. Do the same thing with some other kinds. 

14. Mr. A. purchased an automobile for $1,850. He used it six 
years and sold it to the junk dealer for $40. During the time he 
had spent $680 for repairs including the cost of tires. What was 
the average yearly cost of owning the car? 

15. Write a composition on one of the following subjects: 

Why a Farmer Should Own an Automobile 
My Funniest Experience While Motoring 
The Automobile Law in My State 
My Favorite Car 

16. Compare the value of the automobiles owned by the farmers 
in the community with the value of horses owned by the farmers in 
the same community. 

17. Place a red dot on the community map for each automobile 
owned. 



APPENDIX 

The Library 

The library is a most important factor in teaching 
agriculture, particularly when pupils are observing 
home activities as is suggested in this book. Good 
books are very desirable and effective tools in the hands 
of the discriminating teacher who is impelled by a desire 
to be of service to those of the school community who 
are outside of school. Good books dealing with agri- 
cultural topics will be in demand by the farmers if the 
school makes them available. The following brief list 
of books is offered not as a list for the pupils' use only, 
but as general reading for the farmers in the school 
community. 

Besides books there are thousands of excellent bul- 
letins and circulars dealing with agricultural subjects 
available to the teacher who wishes to write for them. 
Teachers should address the United States Department 
of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., asking for lists of 
available bulletins, then select the ones which will be of 
most value to the patrons of the school and place them 
in the library. Each State Experiment Station and 
College of Agriculture issues bulletins and circulars 
which are valuable to the teacher, pupils, and patrons. 

353 



354 FARM PROJECTS 

Industrial Companies such as the International j 
Harvester Company issue pamphlets and circulars 
many of which are particularly designed to be used i 
in rural schools. Most of the bulletins, circulars and i 
pamphlets referred to may be secured for little or no 
cost. 

Suggested Reference Books for the 
Rural School Library 

Bailey, L. H. — Manual of Gardening: The MacmiUan Company 

(541 PP-) 
Benson, O. H., and Betts, G. H. — ■Agriculture: The Bobbs-Mer- 

rill Company (44 pp.) 
Coffey, W. C. — Productive Sheep Husbandry: J. B. Lippincott 

Company (460 pp.) 
EcKLES, C. H. — Dairy Cattle and Milk Production: The MacmiUan 

Company (342 pp.) 
Gehrs, J. H. — Principles of Agriculture: The MacmiUan Company 

(594 PP-) 
Hopkins, Cyril G. — The Story of the Soil: The Gorham Press 

(350 PP-) 

Lewis, H. ^.—Making Money from liens: J. B. Lippincott Com- 
pany (260 pp.) 

Lloyd, J. W. — Productive Gardening: J. B. Lippincott Company 

(399 PP-) 

LovEjOY, A. J. — Forty Years Experience of a Practical Hog Man: 
Frost Publishing Co., Chicago (170 pp.) 

Madden, I. A., and Turner, E. A. — A Rural Arithmetic: Hough- 
ton Mifflin Company (236 pp.) 

Mosier, J. G. — Soils and Crops: Rand McNally & Company 

(394 PP-) 
Nolan, A. W. — A Year in Agriculture: Row, Peterson & Co. 

(391 PP-) 



APPENDIX 355 

Plumb, C. S. — Beginnings in Animal Husbandry: Webb Publish- 
ing Co. (390 pp.) 

Sanford, a. W.^The Story of Agriculture in the United States: 
D. C. Heath & Co. (394 pp.) 

Spillman, W. J. — -Farm Science: World Book Company (344 pp.) 

Stevenson, J. A. — The Project Method of Teaching: The Macmil- 
lan Company (350 pp.) 

WoLL, F. W. — Productive Feedi7ig of Farm Ani^nals: J. B. Lippin- 
cott Company (362 pp.) 

Waters, H. J. — Essentials of Agriculture: Ginn and Company 

(455 PP-) 
Waugh, F. a.— Landscape Gardening: J. Wiley & Sons (344 pp.) 
Williams and Hill — Corn Book for Young Folk: Ginn and Co. 

(250 pp.) 



INDEX 



Acid, in soil, 73-75. 

Alfalfa, 68, "jt,, 151, 152; raising of, 
154-160; nutritive ratio of, 218 
in balanced ration, 218-219; as 
feed for horses, 236; feed for 
cattle, 241, 242; feed for sheep 
271; feed for pigs, 282, 283, 286 

American class, of poultry, 183. 

Ancona, 184. 

Andalusian, breed of poultry, 184 

Angus, 245. 

Animals, feeding of, 21 1-22 1; how- 
to tell the age of, 222-228. 

Annuals, 56. 

Anther, 138. 

Ants, 310. 

Apple, scab and blotch of, 99; 
pruning of trees, 102-103. 

Arsenate of lead, 300, 303. 

Asiatic class, of poultry, 184. 

Asters, 123. 

Automobile, the, 329, 330, 340-352. 

Axles, 344. 

Ayrshire, breed, 248, 253-254, 255. 

Babcock test, 186-193. 

Bacteria, 10, 99, 157, 158, 206. 

Barberry, 32, 108. 

Bailey, L. H., 55. 

Beans, 20, 22, 126, 129-130, 131, 

I34» 151- 
Bedbug, the, 291. 
Bee, see honeybee. 



Beehives, 313, 314. 

Beeswax, 317. 

Beetles, Colorado potato, 288, 291, 

293, 295-296, 306, 307, 3 10; May, 

291; cucumber, 306, 309. 
Beets, 18, 126, 129, 131, 134. 
Begonia, 24. 

Belgian, breed of horses, 232. 
Berkshire, breed, 259. 
Biennials, 56. 
Blackberries, 108, no. 
"Black leaf 40", 307. 
Blow-out, 351. 
Bobwhite, 299. 
Bone meal, 69. 

Books, for reference, 353-355. 
Bordeaux mixture, 295, 296, 303, 

306, 307. 
Brahma, 184. 
Breeding pen, the, 170. 
Breeds, of poultry, 172, 179-185; 

of draft horses, 232; of beef cattle, 

242-245; of dairy cows, 247-256; 

of swine, 259-261; of sheep, 265- 

266. 
Bridal wreath, 28, 108. 
Brown Swiss, breed, 248, 254. 
Buckeye, 183. 
Buckwheat, 318. 
Buds, 22-23. 
Bulbs, 22. 
Bulletins, 353, 354. 
Butter, 208-209. 



357 



358 



INDEX 



Butter fat, 204-205. 

Butterflies, 288, 290, 291, 292, 293. 

Buttermilk, 209. 

Cabbage, 18, 126, 129,131,134,305. 

Cabbage butterfly, 292-293, 305- 
306, 308-309. 

Cabbage worms, 305-306, 308-309. 

Calcium, 16, 67. 

Calf, raising the, 242. 

Canes, old and new, loi. 

Carbohydrates, 216, 217. 

Carbon, 16, 67. 

Carburetor, 336, 338, 348. 

Carrots, 126, 129, 131, 134. 

Car troubles, causes of, 351. 

Cattle, age of, 224-225; beef, 238- 
246; breeds of dairy, 247-256. 

Chard, 126, 127, 131. 

Chassis, 343. 

Cheat, 47. 

Cheese, 209. 

Cheshire, breed, 261. 

Chester White, breed, 261. 

Cheviot, breed, 265. 

Chicks, care of young, 175-176. 

Chinch bug, 50-52, 288, 290, 293, 
296, 297. 

Chlorophyll, 13. 

Cholera, 287. 

day, Henry, 244. 

Clover, as a fertilizer, 68, 149-150; 
raising of 15I; 152; as feed for 
horses, 236; as feed for cattle, 
242; as feed for sheep, 271; as 
feed for pigs, 283, 286; honey 
obtained from flowers, 318. 

Churn, 331. 

Clutch, 343. 

Clydesdale, breed of horses, 232. 



Cochin, breed, 184. 

Cockleburr, 58. 

Codling moth, 293, 302, 

Coil, 348. 

Coleoptera, 291. 

Connecting rods, 329, 334. 

Corms, 22. 

Corn, 22; selection of seed, 36-42; 
rotation with other crops, 61- 
62; judging, 79-86; testing of 
seed, 87-94; smut, 99; ear rots of, 
99; storageof 134; in thesilo 199; 
nutritive ratio of, 217-218; in 
balanced ration, 218-219; as 
feed for horses, 236; as feed for 
cattle, 241, 242; as feed for sheep, 
271, 276; feed for pigs, 282, 283. 

Cotton, 11; rotation with other 
crops, 63; growing of, 161-164; 
marketing, 163. 

Cottonseed meal, 162, 241, 242. 

Cow peas, 151, 242. 

Crank case, 335. 

Crank shaft, 329, 334, 335, 338. 

Cream separator, the, 202-203, 
205-206,322,331. 

Crops, wheat, 43-53; rotation of, 
60-63. 

Cucumbers, 22. 

Cucumber beetle, 306. 309. 

Culling, 167-168. 

Cultivators, 325-326. 

Currants, pruning of bushes, iio- 
III. 

Cutworms, 298, 302, 303, 305, 308. 

Cylinders, 329, 331, 333, 334, 336, 
338, 345. 349- 

Difi^erential, 344. 
Diptera, 291. 



INDEX 



359 



Diseases, of plants, 95-100; of 
poultry, 177-178; from impure 
milk, 207; of sheep, 277-278; of 
pigs, 287. 

Disk, 323. 

Docking, 263-264. 

Dominique, 183. 

Dorset Horn, 265. 

Drones, 312, 313, 315, 316. 

Duroc Jersey, 260. 

Dutch Belted, 254. 

Dynamo, 346. 

Eggs, better production of, 167- 
178; for hatching, 175; infertile, 
177. 

Elements, necessary for plant 
growth, 15-16. 

English, class of poultry, 185. 

Essex, 261. 

Evergreens, 147. 

Ewes, 273, 274. 

Fairs, State and County, I. 

Fan belt, 345. 

Feeders, 270. 

Feed grinder, 331. 

Feeding, of animals, 211-221; of 

horses, 236; of sheep, 270-271; 

of lambs, 275-276. 
Fertilizers, 68-70, 149, 150, 151. 
Flaxseed, 49. 
Flies, 277, 290, 291, 301. 
Flour, 45. 

Flower bed, the, 123-124. 
Flowers, II, 136-140; on the legume 

151; for honey, 316-317. 
Flywheel, 329? 335. 338. 
Forage, 60. 



Ford, automobile, 342. 

Freezing, of water in radiator, 345. 

Fungus disease, 97-98. 

Galloways, 245. 

Gas engine, the, 300, 329-339. 

Gasoline, 331, 336. 

Geranium, 20, 23, 24. 

Germination, factors necessary for, 

21-22. 
Germs, il. 

Gooseberries, 109, iio-iii. 
Grapevines, pruning of, 101-102, 

111-112. 
Grasshoppers, 288, 290, 291. 
Guernsey, the, 248, 252, 254. 

Hampshire, breed of swine, 261; 
breed of sheep, 265, 266. 

Harrow, the, 324. 

Harvesting, of garden crops, 134; 
of alfalfa, 159-160. 

Hay, 152; modern methods of 
making, 156. 

Hay caps, 160. 

Hellebore, 303. 

Hemiptera, 291. 

Hens, selection of, 168-172; bal- 
anced ration for, 218. 

Herefords, 244. 

Hessian fly, 43, 47, 49, 298. 

Hoe, 324. 

Hogs, balanced ration for, 220. 

Holstein,i89, 248-250, 251, 252, 254. 

Honey, 313-314, 316, 317 

Honeybees, as groups of insects, 
288, 291; discussion of, 312-319. 

Honey locust, 317. 

Honeysuckle, 28, 33. 



36o 



INDEX 



Horses, balanced ration for, 220; 

age of, 225-227; breeds and care 

of, 229-237. 
Hotbed, the, 115-119. 
Houseflies, 288, 291. 
Hydrogen, 16, 67. 
Hymenoptera, 291, 316. 

Incubator, 175. 

Insects, in wheat, 49; groups of, 
288-294; straight-winged, 290, 
291; scaly-winged, 290, 291; 
two-winged, 290-291; control of, 
295-304; of the garden, 305-311. 

International Harvester Company, 

354- 
Iron, 16, 67. 

Java, 183. 

Jersey, 248, 250-252, 254. 

Kerosene, 331. 

Knocks, in an engine, 349-350. 

Kohlrabi, 17. 

Lambs, balanced ration for, 220; 

docking, 263-264; raising of, 273- 

279. 
Landscape, the, 30. 
Langshans, 180, 184. 
Lard, 258. 
Larva, of Hessian fly, 43 ; of insects, 

288, 292. 
Lawn, the, 31. 
Layering, 23. 
Leaves, functions of, 13. 
Leghorn, the, 180, 181; white, 182; 

brown, 182. 
Legumes, 73, 148-153. 
Leicester breed, 265. 
Lepidoptera, 291. 



Lettuce, planting of, 22, 126, 129, 

131 

Library, the, 353. 

Lice, chicken, 177; on sheep, if"]; 

as half-winged insects, 291; melon, 

307; plant, 3 10-3 1 1. 
Lilac, 108. 
Limestone, use of on soils, 72-7%, 

151; in feed for pigs, 282. 
Linseed meal, 276. 
Live stock, 60, 61, 157; club, 280. 
Locusts, 291. 
Lubrication, 336-338. 

Machines, 320-328. 

Magnesium, 16, 67. 

Magneto, 346. 

Manure, 69, 77. 

Map, the community, 4-8; of the 
school grounds, 26. 

May beetle, 291. 

Mediterranean class of poultry, 184. 

Merino, 266. 

Milk, testing of, 186-193; composi- 
tion of, 203-206; souring of, 
206-207; pasteurized, 207-208; 
evaporated, 208; condensed, 208; 
products of, 208-209. 

Milking Shorthorn, the, 254. 

Minorca, 184. 

Missing, 349. 

Mites, 177, 277. 

Moldboard, 321, 323. 

Morning glory, 56. 

Moths, 290, 291. 

Mulching, 29. 

Mulefoot, 261. 

Nectar, 138-139, 151, 312, 313, 317. 
Nitrogen, 16, 67, 68, 149, 152, 157. 



INDEX 



361 



Nodules, 149, 157, 
Nutrients, 206. 

Oak tree, the, 147. 

Oats, rotation with other crops, 

62; treating for smut, 95-96; 

nutritive ratio of, 218; as feed for 

horses, 236; feed for pigs, 282, 

283, 286. 
Oat straw, nutritive ratio of, 218. 
Oil meal, nutritive ratio of, 218. 
Onions, 126, 129, 131, 134. 
Orpington, the, 185. 
Orthoptera, 291 
Oxford, the 265, 266. 
Oxygen, 16, 67, 150. 

Paris green, 295, 296, 300, 303, 

305, 306, 307. 
Parsnips, 126, 127, 131, 134. 
Pasture, 59. 
Pear, blight, 99. 

Peas, 22, 126, 129, 131, 134, 151. 
Percheron, the, 231., 232, 235. 
Perennials, 55. 
Petals. 137. 

Phosphate, rock, 69, 282. 
Phosphorus, 16, 6"], 68. 
Pigs, raising a litter of, 2, 280-287; 

feed for, 152, 218-219, 220. 
Pistil, 138. 

Piston, 329, 333, 334, 335, 345. 
Plants, discussion of, 9-18; extent 

of growth, lOii; uses of, ii; as 

a factory, 11; parts of, 12-14; 

propagation of, 19-25; diseases of, 

95-100; transplanting of, 120- 

124; cotton, 162. 
Plows, 321, 323, 324, 326. 
Plymouth Rock, 181, 183. 



Poland China, 260-261. 

Pollen, 136, 139, 151, 316. 

Pork, 258, 259. 

Potassium, 16, 67, 68. 

Potato beetle, 288, 291, 293, 295, 
296, 306-307, 310. 

Potato, Irish, as illustration of 
plant structure, 16-17; propaga- 
tion of, 23; treating for scab, 
95-96; storage of, 134. 

Potato, sweet, 18, 134, 135. 

Poultry, choosing a breed, 172; 
breeding up, 172-173; selection 
of birds for flock, 173; feeding, 
173-174; housing of, I74-I75; 
breeds of, 179-185; American 
class, 183; Mediterranean class, 
184; Asiatic class, 184-185; 
English class, 185. 

Protein, 216, 217. 

Pruning, 29, 101-114. 

Pullets, for laying, I76-I77* 

Pulley, 331. 

Pulling, 48. 

Pump, 331. 

Pumpkins, 134, 135, 282. 

Punctures, 350-351. 

Pupa, of Hessian fly, 43; of insects, 
292. 

Pushrods, 329. 

Queen bee, 314-315- 
Quicklime, 75. 



Radiator, 344-345' 346- 
Radishes, 18; planting of, 

129, 131. 
Rag doll, 92-93. 
Ragweed, 56! 
Rambouillet, 266. 



22, 126, 



362 



INDEX 



Raspberries, 23, 108, no. 
Rations, narrow, 217; wide, 217; 

balanced, 218-219. 
Red sorrel, 68, 73, 75. 
Rhode Island Red, 181, 183. 
Roller, 324-325. 
Roots, function of, 13; structure of, 

14; of alfalfa, 157-158; feed for 

pigs, 282. 
Rootstocks, 23. 
Rotation, of crops, 6063. 
Roughage, 60, 241, 271. 
Royal jelly, 314. 
Runners, 23. 
Rust, 49; of wheat, 99; leaf and 

stem of oats, 99. 

Sack, for seed corn, 36. 

Salvia, 123-124. 

Scab, 49; treating potatoes for, 
95' 96, 99; apple, 99; wheat, 99. 

School yard, planting of, 26-35. 

Score card, for corn, 80, 84, 85. 

Seed, 20-21; storage of, 22; selec- 
tion of corn, 36-42; sack for, 36; 
seasoning of corn, 37; storage of 
corn, 41; testing of corn, 87-94; 
of legumes, 152; sowing of 
alfalfa, 159; cotton, 162. 

Sepals, 137. 

Shearing, 264, 269. 

Sheep, 11; age of, 224; breeds and 
care of, 263-272. 

Shire breed of horses, 232. 

Shorthorns, 243-244. 

Shropshire, breed, 265, 266, 267. 

Shrubs, 28; pruning of, 103-104, 
107-108. 

Silage, defined, 195; feeding of, 199- 
200, 241, 271. 



Silo, the, 194-201. 

Skim milk, 209, 284, 286. 

Smut, loose, 48; stinking, 48; on 
oats, 95-96, 97-98; on wheat, 
99. 

Snapdragons, 124. 

Snow berry, 31. 

Soil, fertility of, 64-71; use of 
limestone on sour, 72-78; for 
gardens, 133-134; for growth of 
legumes, 151; for growth of 
alfalfa, 158. 

Southdown, breed, 265-266. 

Soy-beans, 22, 68, 73, 151, 242. 

Spermatophytes, Ii. 

Spark plug, 329, 331, 333, 334, 346. 

Spirea, 28. 

Spores, 97, 98. 

Sprayers, knapsack, 300; power, 

, 300- 

Sprays, poison, 300; contact, 300; 
repellent, 300; commonly used, 

303- 
Squash, 135. 
Stamens, 138. 

Starch, composition of, 14-15. 
Starter, causes of trouble with, 

348-349. 
Stem, function of, 13; structure 

of, 14. 
Steers, balanced ration for, 220. 
Sting, of bees, 318. 
Stomach worm, 277-278. 
Storage, of vegetables, 134-135. 
Storage battery, 346-347. 
Straw, 152. 
Strawberries, 23, 128. 
Suckers, 23. 
Sulphur, 16, 67. 
Swine, 257-262. 



INDEX 



363 



Tamworths, 261. 

Tankage, nutritive ratio of, 218; 

feed for pigs, 282, 286. 
Teeth as indication of age, 223-224. 
Ticks, 277. 
Timothy, 23, 61, 152; nutritive 

ratio of hay, 218; used as feed for 

horses, 236. 
Tire trouble, 350-351. 
Tomatoes, transplanting, 120-121, 

131; in garden, 126; storage of, 

134; protection from cutworm, 

305- 
Tomato worms, 307. 
Tools, care of, 327-328. 
Tractor, 230, 321, 324, 329, 330, 

331. 337; 
Transmission gears, 343-344. 
Trees, pruning of, 102-103, 104- 

108; planting of, 142-147. 
Transplanting, 120-124. 
Tubers, 17-22. 
Tulip, 136. 
Tunis, breed, 265. 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 353. 

Vaccination, 287. 

Valves, 329, 335, 336. 

Vegetables, the home garden, 125- 

I35-. 
Victoria, breed, 261. 
Vines, 32-33. 



Washer, the, 331. 

Water jacket, 334, 345. 

Weaning of lambs, 276-277; of pigs, 
285. 

Weeds, 22; discussion of, 54-58; 
control of, 57-58; growth in sour 
soils, 73-75; honey obtained from, 
318. 

Wheat, the crop, 43-53; areas of, 
46; yield, 46; types of, 46; 
planting of, 47; care of in winter, 
48; diseases of, 48-49; yields in 
Illinois experiment, 'j'j; rust and 
scab of, 99; nutritive ratio of, 
218. 

Wheat bran, nutritive ratio of, 
218; feed for lambs, 276; feed 
for pigs, 283. 

Whey, 209. 

White top, 68. 

Wild carrot, 56. 

Wild lettuce, 61. 

Wild onion, 56. 

Wood saw, 331. 

Wool, type of sheep, 265; impor- 
tance of, 268-269; combing, 269; 
clothing, 269; 

Workers, 312, 315, 316. 

World War, 'j'j. 

Wyandotte, White, 182, 183. 

Yorkshire, breed, 261. 



